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COURTESY OF AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS 



















Enginemen’s Manual 


INTENDED FOR THE 


Engineer, Fireman or Mechanic who wishes 
to extend his knowledge of the 
Locomotive or Air Brake 


Questions and Answers for Instructions 
and Examination 


By W. P. JAMES 


illustrated 



W. P. JAMES PUBLISHING COMPANY 
Louisville, Kentucky 
1916 




T^cn 

3 


Copyright, 1916 

W. P. JAMES PUBLISHING COMPANY 
Louisville, Ky. 



MAY 12 1916 

©CI.A428950 


OPD.I , 


Table of Contents 


Page 

Introduction_ xi 

Steam_ 1 

Combustion_ 4 

Definition of Technical Terms_ 14 

Handy Rules in Arithmetic. __ 16 

British Thermal Unit_ 17 

Classification of Locomotives_ 18 

What Constitutes an Engine Failure?_ 19 

Pounds in Locomotives_ 20 

Mikado Type Locomotives___ 24 

Compound Locomotives_ 28 

Mallet Locomotives_ 38 

Triplex Articulated Compound Locomotive_ 45 

Electric Headlights_ 49 

Lubricators_ 64 

Injectors_ 67 

Slide Valves_ 71 

Walschaert Valve Gear_ 73 

Baker Valve Gear_ 103 

Southern Valve Gear_ 122 

Superheaters_ 125 

Engine Failures and Breakdowns:— 

The Locomotive and Adhesion_,_ 134 

Boilers_ 138 

Draft Appliances_ 145 

Injectors_ 148 

Lubricators_ 155 

Frames, Trucks, Tires, Wheels, and Axles- 159 

Valves and Valve Gear_ 170 

Progressive Examinations: 

First Year_ 190 

Second Year_.. 203 

Third Year_ 224 

Handling of Freight Trains...- 290 

Reasons for Air Pumps Running Hot- 292 

Definition of the Terms “Piston Travel/’ “Running Travel,” 

and “Standing Travel”_ 294 

“PC” Passenger Brake Equipment- 296 

No. 6 “ET” Locomotive Brake Equipment_ 320 

B-3 Locomotive Brake Equipment- 380 

“K” Triple Valve_ 395 

Rules and Instructions for Inspection and Testing of Steam 

Locomotives and Tenders- 408 






















































































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Introduction 

The greatest value that any book possesses is the suggestions 
it affords the person who reads it. In the early days of railroads, 
ignorance was general; that day has passed. To-day to be ignorant 
is to be ignored. 

The enginemen of the railroads constitute as highly a trained 
class of men as are found connected with the mechanical world 
of trade at the present time. Their knowledge will increase with 
time and experience. 

Men, as a rule, have no love for study, but the taste grows, 
and if one man studies, all must study or be outdistanced in the 
race of life. Thus the ambition of one man starts the others 
forward. 

With enginemen many methods have been employed to in¬ 
crease their knowledge so that they may better serve themselves 
and the railroads with which they are connected. 

In order to pass the examinations, experience, careful study, 
preparation and ability are required. No book, of course, can 
directly supply all those qualities. But indirectly such book 
knowledge may contribute much to the enginemen in the hour 
of emergency. 

It is essential that the fireman and engineer should be familiar 
with the construction and operation of the subsidiary machines 
and devices that form the modern locomotive if he hopes for 
success in his profession, and the aim of this work is to help him 
achieve success. 

My object is to make this Manual so clear and simple that the 
youngest fireman can comprehend what is dealt with. 

It is not pretended that it treats of every particular kind of 
locomotive appliance or breakdowns, nor does it go into details. 

On all railroads it’s the practice to examine enginemen; such 
examinations differ on various roads, and it is needless to say 
that it would be sufficient to memorize the answers to questions 
given herein. They are simply given to be used as a guide in pre¬ 
paring for examinations, and to familiarize himself with the de¬ 
tails of the mechanism and construction of the locomotive. 

I take the pleasure of extending public thanks to those who 
have contributed articles in the preparation of this work; and to 
the manufacturers who have so kindly rendered their assistance. 

This book is respectfully submitted, but not without conscious¬ 
ness of its many imperfections, to the enginemen for their ap¬ 
proval. 


W. P. J. 



















































































Steam 

Records show that steam was used for heating purposes back 
to the year 150 B. C. To James Watt, more than any other man 
is due the honor of first controlling and utilizing steam for 
power, and perfecting the steam engine, though others had used 
steam for power before Watt. 

Steam is the vapor of water generated by heating water above 
the boiling point, hence steam is water in a gaseous state and is 
colorless and imperceptible to the eye. The vapor seen escaping 
from a vessel of boiling water, or rolling in clouds from the ex¬ 
haust of an engine, is only a modification, or diluted agent of the 
mighty force that does so much of the world’s work. 

This vapor is steam that is resolving itself back into water, 
the change which is visible is caused by its contact with the 
cold air. 

Saturated steam is steam either in contact with the water 
from which it was generated or, if separated therefrom, is kept 
at the same temperature and pressure. Wet steam is steam not 
only saturated, but also holding in suspension unevaporated water 
in the form of minute drops; it holds this water in suspension 
mechanically, due either to ebullition of the water from which it 
is generated or else from a rapid flow of steam from near the 
surface of the water. 

Dry steam is the term usually used for saturated steam in 
distinction from wet steam. Superheated steam is steam removed 
from contact with water and heated above the temperature of the 
water from which it was generated; it is variously called steam- 
gas, surcharged steam, or anhydrous steam. Steam more closely 
resembles a perfect gas when superheated than in any other state, 
and it is for this reason that in the locomotive the attempt is 
made to superheat the steam. The boiler has a dome from which, 
and at quite a distance above the usual water level, reasonably 
dry steam is taken, passed through a pipe called the “dry pipe,” 
and branching in the smoke-box or front end of the locomotive 
where the escaping hot gases have a tendency to superheat it, 
passes into the two cylinders in which its energy becomes useful. 

In steam, as in other gases, there is a natural repulsion be¬ 
tween its various particles, each particle trying to separate itself 
from the others, so that it will fill the receptacle in which it is 
placed, regardless of the quantity of steam or size of the vessel 
holding it. Its natural tendency is to expand and thus push out 
whatever resists expansion. If the steam is enclosed and super¬ 
heated, therefore, as in the case of a locomotive boiler, the natural 
tendency of its particles to separate is intensified and we thus 


2 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


obtain, according to i‘ts quantity or volume, the steam pressure 
required. 

Real steam is an invisible gas, or, rather, a transparent fluid, 
really water changed into gas by the action of heat. Accordingly, 
to make the steam that an engine requires water must be boiled-. 
To hasten this and to lessen the cost, the boiler is permeated with 
tubes, or flues, connecting with the fire-box, into which the flames 
therefrom are drawn, thus multiplying the heating surface and, 
in so far as this is done, hastening the boiling of the water and 
the generation of steam. As the water is transformed into steam 
it rises into the dome. From there it is released by opening the 
throttle valve and is thence conveyed, through the dry pipe and 
steam pipes, through the steam chest, thence to the cylinders. 

It is the expansive power of the steam operating through the 
mechanism of the cylinders that affords the propelling power of 
the locomotive. 


THEORY OF SUPERHEATING 

The theory of superheating contains several important points, 
and without going into the realm of thermodynamics we may 
glance at the advantages which are claimed for superheated steam. 
In the first place, superheated steam contains a greater amount of 
energy per pound than dry, saturated steam does if both are at 
the same pressure. This increased energy is in the form of heat 
units, which enables the superheated steam to do more work in 
the cylinders than saturated steam could do if both were ex¬ 
hausted at the same pressure. 

The reason for this is that dry, saturated steam is always on the 
point of giving up some of its heat and turning into water. Such, a 
loss not only reduces the volume and pressure in the cylinder, but 
it gives up the store of latent heat contained in the particles of 
steam which are thus turned to water, and as the latent heat of 
steam is 970.4 British thermal units, it is evident that the loss 
owing to condensation is very considerable. If now, by super¬ 
heating, we give to the steam, which is so ready to fall back into 
the form of water, a temperature greater than that due to its 
pressure, condensation will not take place until the superheated 
steam has given up the whole of the heat represented by this 
extra temperature. There is, of course, a reduction in tempera¬ 
ture when superheated steam strikes the comparatively cool walls 
of the cylinder, but there is no condensation. This is practically 
where the principle upon which the value of superheating depends. 

The increase of temperature in superheated steam augments 
its volume, and all the moisture which is sure to be contained in 
saturated steam and any particles of water which may have been 
entrained as the steam entered the throttle valve are evaporated, 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


3 


and thus the action of the steam in the cylinders, that is, its 
expansion, follows the laws which apply to a perfect gas. Super¬ 
heated steam also possesses a higher velocity than saturated steam 
at the same pressure, this results in the hotter steam more rapidly 
passing through the steam pipes and ports, and reaches the piston, 
if one may say, with increased striking force, which is an ad¬ 
vantage in high-speed service. 

In writing of this subject in their catalogue, No. 10,037, the 
American Locomotive Company says that “actual experience, as 
well as theory, proves that these advantages are obtained to the 
fullest extent only by the use of high degrees of superheat, by 
which is meant from 150 to 175 degrees Fahrenheit and above.” 
The table published in connection with these remarks shows that 
for the lower ranges of superheat, such as 25, 50 and 75 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the economy is small. 

A very satisfactory reduction in the amount of water con¬ 
sumed is evident when superheating is carried out. This amounts 
to from about 15 to 25 per cent for superheated steam receiving 
150 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit of superheat. A reduction of the 
fuel used is also one of the advantages of superheating, which 
follows from the fact that less water has to be evaporated to do 
a given amount of work. 

In describing the principle of superheating one might almost 
say that it is utilizing waste heat to change high pressure fog 
into a perfect gas. 



Combustion* 


Three things are essential to combustion or burning in a loco¬ 
motive fire-box, as well as elsewhere. They are: The fuel to be 
burned; oxygen, the supporter of burning, and the igniting 
temperature of the fuel. Sometimes in our attempts to economize 
we apparently lose sight of two of these and regretfully watcli.the 
other disappear into the fire-box. One person’s regret may be due 
to the fact that the fuel is costing him money, while the other 
may be thinking of the fuel only in relation to the performance 
sheet. What is needed just now among all railroad men who have 
any immediate connection with the consumption of fuel is a con¬ 
centration of attention on the interdependence of fuel, oxygen and 
ignition temperature. 

The fuel used on most of our locomotives is soft or bituminous 
coal, and for that reason it will receive sole consideration in this 
discussion. Let it be said that coal, as such, does not burn. Be¬ 
fore any burning can occur the coal must be broke down, which 
process requires an expenditure of heat. The first products of this 
breaking down process are coke and gases. The coke is made up 
of carbon (technically known as “fixed carbon”) and those sub¬ 
stances which help to make the ash. The gases evolved are almost 
all composed of hydrogen (the lightest known gas) and carbon, 
therefore called hydro-carbons. These hydro-carbons must also 
be broken down into their components, hydrogen and carbon. 
Practically speaking, the heat value of a ton of bituminous coal 
depends on the number of pounds of fixed carbon and number of 
pounds and relative composition of the hydro-carbon gases which 
will be produced upon heating it. In general the hydro-carbons 
are in excess of the fixed carbon, and the two together will usually 
average from 1,600 to 1,700 pounds per ton of coal. 

The real process of burning in a locomotive fire-box is the unit¬ 
ing of oxygen, a gas, with the fuel to be burned. In this uniting 
process heat is evolved and used in generating steam. If. a 
sufficient supply of oxygen be present, a pound of carbon will burn 
to form a colorless gas, carbon dioxide, and enough heat will be 
evolved to convert 12.5 pounds of water into steam, the water to 
begin with being at the tank temperature, and the steam generated 
at a boiler pressure of 180 to 200 pounds. If, however, the supply 
of oxygen be restricted, then another colorless gas will be formed 
called carbon monoxide, and but 4 pounds of water will be evapo¬ 
rated under similar conditions of pressure, etc. That is, with the 
same carbon to be burned one may get its full heat value or less 
than one-third, depending solely upon the supply of oxygen. A 


*From Mr. J. W. Shepherd. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


5 


pound of hydrogen burned will evolve heat enough to evaporate 
54.5 pounds of water under the above conditions. 

The igniting temperature of carbon is a little more than 900 
degrees Fahrenheit; hydrogen about 1,200 and hydro-carbons from 
940 to 1,230 degrees. There is no reason why these temperatures 
cannot be constantly maintained in a fire-box. 

It need hardly be mentioned that in obtaining fuel we must 
take what nature has provided for us, but in supplying the oxygen 
—which is just as necessary—man’s skill is called into play. This 
important gas, oxygen, is a part of the air, being about one-fifth 
of it, by volume. Since it may be had for the taking, the engine- 
men’s source of supply is the atmosphere and by extraordinary 
demand is met by an induced draft. At present this draft is pro¬ 
duced by shooting the exhaust steam into the stack. Objections 
to this method are back pressure in the cylinders and the almost 
absolute dependency of the strength of draft on position of re¬ 
verse lever, or cut off. This latter objection frequently manifests 
itself to the discomfiture of the fireman and also in the loss of 
fuel. The economic considerations of the present warrant the 
prediction that another method must supplant this one. 

Not only is oxygen necessary for burning, but it must touch 
whatever burns. Right here is where locomotive men’s troubles 
begin in earnest. It is not enough that the requisite amount of 
oxygen pass through the fire-box in a given time, but its usefulness 
is largely determined by just where it is going through the box. 
To illustrate: Some time ago the writer had occasion to ride on 
a locomotive used in heavy freight service. This particular loco¬ 
motive was known among the men as “the coal eater,” and the 
reason was soon apparent, for practically all the oxygen was being 
pulled up through the forward two-thirds of the box and t-he fire¬ 
man kept steam at the expense of fuel. Evidently the draft ap¬ 
pliances were improperly adjusted. Other instances might be 
cited in which with apparently a proper adjustment of draft ap¬ 
pliances similar results were temporarily produced on account of 
uneven firing. These illustrations are based on the improper 
utilization of grate area, and instances of “holes” in a fire and 
“clinkers” belong in the same category. 

In an earlier part of this chapter it was stated that of the two 
heat-producing factors from coal the hydro-carbons usually weigh 
more than the fixed carbon. About one-fifth of the weight of the 
hydro-carbons is the weight of the hydrogen which they evolve 
when broken down. And a pound of hydrogen, it will be re¬ 
membered, is worth more than 4 pounds of carbon for heating 
purposes. It must be evident, therefore, that more than half the 
fuel consumed in a locomotive is consumed as gases. In this con¬ 
nection it is well to remember that when these gases are evolved 
they do not loiter, in order to be burned, but hasten at once 
toward the stack. One or two seconds’ delay in burning them 



6 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


means their loss. If they remain intact they, being colorless, 
escape unnoticed. This is the condition that generally obtains 
when a fire is badly clinkered and the fireman longs for black 
smoke while his pointer continues to drop backward. No wonder 
the pointer goes back. Heat is expended in breaking down the 
coal, and then the best part of the fuel is simply thrown away. 
When a fireman produces black smoke he does so because he,is 
partially, but only partially, burning the hydro-carbon gases, and 
thereby is getting something in return for the heat used in evolv¬ 
ing them and breaking them down. Such a smoky fire will gen¬ 
erate more steam per pound of coal than the smokeless, cindery 
one cited, but that does not justify the belief prevalent among 
some enginemen that a smoky fire is the best kind of steam. 
Black, smoke is unburned carbon from the hydro-carbons. It is 
unburned usually because of the lack of sufficient oxygen. In this 
dearth of oxygen some of the carbon is partially burned to form 
carbon monoxide. Therefore the black smoke by no means repre¬ 
sents the fuel loss from a smoky fire. It is simply an indicator 
pointing to a loss. In general a smoky fire is produced by putting 
the coal into the box in such a way and in such quantity that the 
hydro-carbons upon being evolved are not in contact with sufficient 
oxygen for their complete burning. Fires that roll out dense 
clouds of black smoke are not the only ones that waste fuel. A 
given amount of hydro-carbons requires a certain amount of 
oxygen for complete burning. But suppose there is an insuf¬ 
ficiency of oxygen, then some of the carbon may be but partially 
burned, forming carbon monoxide, which is perfectly colorless. 
There is always danger of a loss of fuel in heavy firing, because 
of the large amount of hydro-carbons evolved in a given t^ime. 

Too' much stress cannot be laid on the consideration of the 
hydro-carbon gases in locomotive combustion, for they are either 
the friend or the foe of the fireman just as he chooses to make 
them. If properly handled, they are worth more than all else he 
can get from his coal, or if improperly handled he may lose almost 
any portion of them and obtain black smoke besides. To secure 
proper combustion of these gases then, immediately upon being 
evolved they should be mixed with sufficient oxygen for their 
complete burning. On some roads a brick arch is used to assist 
in this mixing. 

No stress has been laid on the burning of the carbon in the 
coke, because it simply lies on the grates and waits for the oxy¬ 
gen to come along. A fireman doesn’t lose fuel from that source. 

Since oxygen must touch whatever burns it is evident that coal 
should be finely broken in order to insure proper contact. At 
present too much coal is put into fire-boxes in large chunks, and 
the hydro-carbons evolved do not have the chance to come in touch 
with oxygen as they must in order to be burned. 

A word might be said regarding the influence of moisture in 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


7 


coal—also the practice of wetting coal—aside from the fact that 
it takes heat to evaporate this moisture. The steam generated 
from a quantity of water occupies about 1,800 times the volume 
of the water at atmospheric pressure. At a reduced pressure 
and high temperature, such conditions as one would find in a 
fire-box, the volume would be correspondingly larger. Therefore 
water introduced into a fire-box through any medium, upon be¬ 
coming steam (and if not dissociated) occupies space that would 
otherwise be filled with other gaseous products. That is, the 
efficiency of the draft is impaired. This same effect manifests 
itself in firing on damp or rainy days. 

As a concluding statement, permit the prediction that inherent 
objections to the present method of draft and the present form of 
fuel make a change in both necessary. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
ON COMBUSTION 


Q.—What in your opinion is the simplest method by which 
engineer and fireman can save fuel? 

A.—First, be sure that the engineer knows how to direct the 
work of the fireman. Second, that the fireman is willing and 
intelligent enough to see and do as he is instructed, then it be¬ 
comes merely a matter of getting them to co-operate in their work, 
after which good results are bound to follow. Any plan that 
ignores the absolute authority of the engineer must fail. Much 
unsatisfactory service of the power as well as many absolute 
failures may be directly traced to the want of a directing head 
on the engine. 

Q.—What is combustion, or burning? 

A.—It is the union of that element of the air known as oxygen 
with the hydrogen and carbon of the coal, this union forming 
a gas. 

Q.—What are the elements of fire, as considered in locomotive 
practice? 

A.—Quality of fuel, composition, distribution and application 
of air through the burning fuel to produce the greatest possible 
degree of heat with the smallest possible consumption of fuel. 

Q.—Is there such a thing as perfect combustion? 

A.—No. 

Q.—What is perfect combustion from a theoretical standpoint? 

A.—It is combustion that supplies just the required number 
of heat units to furnish a given amount of steam at all times to 
perform the required work without a fuel waste. 



8 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—Why can it not be attained? 

A.—The manner of supplying the fuel to the fire at irregular 
intervals and in varying quantities; the loss that is continually 
taking place from imperfect combustion, which will be spoken of 
later; the variation of grades, load and speed, with consequent 
variation in cut-off and fuel consumption. While a heavy train 
means more money earned than a light one to offset the increased 
fuel consumption a higher rate of speed increases the amount of 
coal consumed without any increase in the earnings; so that it 
is evident from an economical standpoint fast trains are not a 
success. For these reasons perfect combustion is impossible in 
locomotive practice, and is not attained with stationary boilers 
where the engine load and speed is not variable. 

Q.—What is meant by the term heat unit? 

A.—The amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water 
one degree Fahrenheit. 

Q.—What is its equivalent mechanically expressed? 

A.—The power exerted to raise 772 pounds one foot high. 

Q.—How many heat units does a pound of coal burned repre¬ 
sent? 

A.—It varies with the quality of coal burned, but about 14,000 
may be considered a fair average with the different grades of coal. 
With an excellent grade of coal where there was but very small 
loss from unburnable material it would run much higher, and 
with a poor grade the opposite condition would prevail in a 
similar degree. A good grade of coal that cost much more than 
a poor one is often the cheaper when the relative amount of heat 
units in the two are considered. 

Q.—What is the amount of water evaporated for each pound 
of coal consumed? 

A.—Seven to eight pounds of water to one pound of bituminous 
coal burned; about one pound less water is evaporated per pound 
of anthracite coal. 

Q.—What are the two most important elements in the produc¬ 
tion of combustion? 

A.—The carbon of the fuel and the oxygen of the air. These 
two elements have a strong natural affinity for each other, which 
fact aids greatly in the process of combustion and producing both 
light and heat amid violent evolution of the gases, within the 
fire-box. 

Q.—What is the composition of soft coal? 

A.—About 80 per cent carbon, 5 per cent hydrogen, and the 
remainder may be classed as waste material, that is, incombustible 
matter. 

Q.—What is the amount of air required to consume one pound 
of soft coal? 

A.—The exact amount can not be given in locomotive practice, 
owing to the varying conditions of the fire and the work and the 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


9 


quality of the coal used, but from 12 to 18 pounds is a fair average. 
The rate of air admission must be proportionate to the coal con¬ 
sumption. Too much air, especially if admitted above the -fire, 
cools it and causes a fuel waste; too little air supplied causes 
imperfect combustion with a consequent fuel waste. 

Q.—How much space does a pound of air occupy? 

A.—Thirteen cubic feet. Taking 12 pounds of air, the lowest 
rate of air consumption per one pound of coal, multiplied by 13 
cubic feet, gives 156 cubic feet of air used for each pound of coal 
burned; allowing 20 pounds for a shovel of coal gives 3,120 cubic 
feet of air consumed for each shovel of coal burned, and on that 
basis 31,200 cubic feet of air for each ton burned. The necessity 
of unrestricted air admission through the grates is obvious to any 
one who cares to give the matter any consideration whatever. 

Q.—How can the amount of carbon and hydrogen in coal be 
determined? 

A.—Only by chemical test. Therefore the comparison of coal 
sheets of parallel lines of road with varying grades and qualities 
of coal is no fair comparison in any sense of the locomotive 
performance. 

Q.—Which is the lighter gas, carbon or hydrogen? 

A.—Hydrogen. It raises first and is first consumed of the gases 
of any given piece of coal, and a certain amount of moisture is 
consumed with it. The carbon is next burned, but the two burn¬ 
ings are so rapid as to be practically one and the same. Nothing 
in nature is destroyed. Its form only is changed. Coal by com¬ 
bustion is changed into heat and waste material; the oxygen of 
the air changes its form, and water is converted into a gas called 
steam, to be later vaporized and changed hack to water by cool¬ 
ing. Always changed but no destruction of matter. 

Q.—Is oxygen necessary for combustion? 

A.—Absolutely: It must also come in contact with whatever 
is to be burned, so that the admission of air is the important 
matter in combustion. 

Q.—What change must occur with coal before it is burned? 

A.—It must be broken down, that is, the heat properties must 
be separated from the waste material, and heat is required to do 
this and by its application gas and coke are produced. Coke is 
known as the fixed carbon of the coal, and the waste material is 
designated as ash. The gas is carbon and hydrogen. The hydro¬ 
gen and carbon in a ton of coal is equal, as before stated, to 
about 85 per cent of the whole, or 1,700 pounds for one ton of coal. 

Q.—What gas is formed by the proper mixing of oxygen with 
the gas from the coal? 

A.—Carbon dioxide. A colorless gas. 

Q.—What result as to loss of heat does insufficient air admis¬ 
sion to a fire-box have? 



10 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—A pound of carbon turned to carbon dioxide will convert 
125 pounds of water into steam at a high boiler pressure, but with 
too small an admission of oxygen only about one-third as much 
water will be evaporated under similar conditions, so that the 
fuel waste is enormous; therefore, the restriction of the draft 
area by reason of bad damper arrangement or handling, or from 
clinkered or heavy fire are expensive matters for the railroad com¬ 
panies financially, and physically for the fireman who makes the 
steam. 

Q.—What three important things are to be considered as most 
essential in combustion? 

A.—The kind and quality of the fuel to be burned; the ad¬ 
mission or furnishing of sufficient oxygen—the supporter of burn¬ 
ing—to the fire, and the igniting temperature of the fuel burned. 

Q.—What usually controls the kind and quality of coal burned? 

A.—Natural availability. Often a soft coal is used that shows 
a poorer rate of heating power than some other coal that must be 
hauled from a distance. However, it will make the steam by 
using more of it, and its availability over the other coal makes 
it cheaper per 100 ton mile even with a higher consumption. 

Q.—What is the igniting temperature of bituminous coal? 

A.—Carbon 900 degrees. The two gases united as hydro-carbons 
950 to 1,250 degrees Fahrenheit. These are only approximate 
figures for the different grades of soft coal, the kind most com¬ 
monly used in locomotive service. 

Q.—What part of the air is oxygen? 

A.—About one-fifth part. The source of supply is unlimited, 
but the same is not true concerning the source of admission. To 
meet this demand for abundant air admission and to meet the 
extra demand by the use of large locomotives various plans 
were tried. 

Q.—Explain some of these plans. 

A.—At first by increasing the length of the fire-box to such a 
degree that it was found to be impractical for efficient firing and 
combustion. To give the required grate area and shorten the box 
to reasonable proportions the shallow fire-box extending out over 
the frame and rear drivers; or trail wheels on some types of 
locomotives with high drive wheels. 

Q.—Has any other method of admitting air other than through 
the grates been tried, and with what result? 

A.—Admission by hollow stay bolts and by flues running from 
the atmosphere through the fire-box sheets above the fire, and 
known as combustion flues. The all-hollow stay bolt is not used 
as much as formerly and the combustion flues are used in a milder 
degree. 

Q.—Why are combustion flues used to a less extent than 
formerly? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


11 


A.—The admission of air above the fire through a number of 
two-inch tubes was found to be more detrimental than beneficial, 
on account of such large currents or air cooling the fire and sheets 
and tubes of the fire-box. Where the grate area is deficient, air 
admitted in small jets above the fire would be of benefit, as it 
would mix readily with the gases without cooling them to such 
an extent as is done by combustion tubes. 

Q.—Why is air that has passed through the grates to the fire¬ 
box preferable for the purpose of combustion? 

A.—Because in passing through the fire it becomes heated and 
is more ready to unite with the coal gases and take its part in 
combustion than that which is admitted above the fire. A certain 
amount of air admitted above the fire can be used without notice¬ 
able loss, but the heat loss is considerable when it is admitted in 
such quantities as to cool the gases below the igniting tempera¬ 
ture. All firemen know what the result of holding the firedoor 
open is on the fire. 

Q.—What regulates the openings between the grate fingers in 
addition to the air admission? 

A.—The openings must not be so large as to allow coal to drop 
unburned in the ash pan. They should rock enough to shake 
small cinders and pieces of slate through readily. 

Q.—How can the necessity for the immediate burning of the 
gases bo illustrated? 

A.—As before stated, at a high temperature with plenty of 
oxygen admitted to the coal gases, carbon dioxide is formed with 
a heat value three times as great as where the supply of oxygen 
is reduced or the temperature is too low, and carbon monoxide is 
formed; they do not wait to be burned, but are at once carried 
forward through the flues and escape unobserved out of the stack 
to the atmosphere. 

Q.—Why is escaping gas from a smokestack not noticeable? 

A.—Because it is colorless. Turn on a gas jet and watch if 
you can see the escaping gas. 

Q.—Will gases be burned after once they have entered the 
tubes? 

A.—To no great extent. 

Q.—Why? 

A.—Because of the low temperature within the tubes and the 
amount of heavy gas they contain. A light lowered into a well 
where there is a carbonic acid gas immediately dies, and so the 
blaze from the fire-box enters the flues but a short distance and 
dies. That the temperature of the flues is low is demonstrated 
by the fact that flues seldom, if ever, leak in the smokebox end, 
evidence that they are not subjected to the great temperature 
variations that they are in the fire-box end. 






12 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—Is a fire that gives off plenty of black smoke evidence that 
all the gases are being consumed and that it is the best kind for 
steam? 

A.—No. A fire that is in good condition will always give off 
some black smoke when a fresh supply of coal is put on the fire, 
but this will only be for an instant, unless a large amount of 
green coal has been used. Light firing will do away with much 
black smoke, which is an indication of too little oxygen for the 
amount of coal supplied and represents unburned carbon and 
a loss of heat. 

Q.—Does black smoke represent all the heat loss that may be 
taking place? 

A.—No. Colorless gas may be escaping at the same time 
unnoticed. 

Q.—Is there any difference in the amount of coal burned in 
either end of the fire-box under different conditions of service or 
cut-off? 

A.—There is. When engine is first started and when getting 
under headway, the draft is strongest through forward end of 
grates. This is due to the presence of the baffle sheet in front 
end covering a large portion of the upper flues, while the lower 
ones are free to accommodate the violent circulation which takes 
place under such service; and the air to supply the circulation 
will naturally come from the most convenient source, which is at 
the point nearest the lower flues, the forward end of fire-box. 
When headway is gained and lever is cut back, the draft becomes 
less violent, giving time for a more equal circulation through all 
the grate surface, and all the flues as well. 

Q.—What effect, if any, does the regulation of draft have on 
the life of flues? 

A.—Theoretically speaking, there would perhaps be little, if 
any difference, assuming that the grate surface be amply supplied 
with fuel to meet the variations of draft, as already explained in 
the foregoing answer; but the difficulty of meeting these changes 
by the average fireman is apparent to any practical man. So, if 
the front end of grates is not properly supplied with coal at times 
when the draft is strong there, holes will be pulled through fire, 
permitting cold currents of air to strike the flues, which may 
cause them to leak. It requires the greatest skill on the part of 
the fireman to prevent this, for if he finds the fault only after the 
steam has gone back the damage to flues may have already taken 
place. 

Q.—Why is it necessary that front-end doors and joints of 
cinder hoppers be kept tight? 

A.—To prevent the vacuum creating action of the exhaust from 
being interfered with. Also to prevent admission of air that 
might fan fire created by sparks. 

Q.—How does the size of exhaust tip affect the steaming and 
working of the engine? 




ENGrINEMEN’S MANUAL 


13 


A.—As all the steam from the cylinders must escape through 
the exhaust tip, its outward velocity will depend upon the size of 
the opening. The smaller the tip, the faster the steam must rush. 
When a tip is small some part of the steam will be prevented from 
escaping, and will remain in the cylinder, obstructing the return 
movement of the piston, causing back pressure. 

Q.—What effect on fuel consumption has a small tip? 

A.—When the tip is small the velocity of exhaust steam is 
high, which induces a fierce rush of the fire gases through the 
flues, thereby wasting fuel. 

Q.—What is the effect of admitting less than sufficient air to 
the fire? 

A.—The act of combustion produces a gas deficient in heat. 

Q.—What is the effect of admitting an excessive supply of air 
to the fire? 

A.—The volume of air in excess of that needed to supply oxy¬ 
gen to form carbon dioxide absorbs part of the heat that ought to 
be used for steam making. It also tends to depress the fire below 
the ignition temperature. 

Q.—What is the ignition temperature of fuel? 

A.—The degree of heat at which any kind of fuel begins to 
burn is called its ignition temperature. Different kinds of fuel 
have different igniting points. If one takes a piece of iron heated 
to a dim red and applies it to a gas jet, the gas will not ignite. 
Increase the temperature of the iron until it reaches a cherry 
red and it will ignite the gas jet. From this experiment it may 
be inferred that this ignition temperature of hydrogen gas is 
about the same as the cherry heat of iron, which is about 1,600 
degrees Fahrenheit. As carbon requires still greater heat for 
ignition, it may safely be inferred that the heat of a fire-box per¬ 
forming active duty is considerably higher than the cherry heat 
of iron. 



Definition of Technical 
Terms 


Absolute pressure of steam is its pressure reckoned frdm 
vacuum; the pressure shown by the steam gauge, plus the pres¬ 
sure of the atmosphere. 

Boiler pressure is the pressure above atmosphere; the pressure 
shown by a correct steam gauge. 

Initial pressure is the pressure in the cylinder at the begin¬ 
ning of the forward stroke. 

Terminal pressure is the pressure that would be in the cylinder 
at the end of the piston’s stroke if release did not take place 
before the end of the stroke; it can be determined by extending 
the expansion curve to the end of the diagram, or by dividing 
the pressure at the cut-off by the ratio of the expansion. 

Mean effective pressure is the average pressure against the 
piston during its entire stroke in one direction, less the back 
pressure. 

Back pressure is the loss in pounds per square inch required 
to get the steam out of the cylinder after it has done its work. 
On a locomotive it is shown by the distance apart of the atmos¬ 
phere and counter pressure lines. 

Total back pressure is the distance between the lines of counter¬ 
pressure and perfect vacuum represented in pounds.. 

Initial expansion is shown by the reduction of pressure in the 
cylinder before steam is shut off. 

Ratio of expansion would be the ratio of the fall in pressure 
between the cut-off and the end of the stroke, providing there 
was no exhaust. 

Wire drawing is the reduction of pressure between the boiler 
and cylinder; it often causes initial expansion. It is caused by 
contracted steam pipes or ports. 

Clearance is all the waste space between the piston and valve, 
when the piston is at the end of its stroke. 

A unit of heat is the heat required to increase the temperature 
of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit when the tempera¬ 
ture of the water is just above the freezing point. 

A unit of work (foot pound) is one pound raised a height of 
one foot. One unit of heat equals 772 units of work. 

One horse power is 33,000 pounds lifted a height of one foot 
in one minute; or one pound lifted 33,000 feet in one minute or 
an equivalent force. 

Indicated horse power is the horse power shown by the in¬ 
dicator. It is the product of the net area of the piston; its speed 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


15 


in feet per minute and the mean effective pressure divided by 
33,000 pounds. 

Net horse power is the indicated horse power less the friction 
of the engine. 

Saturated steam, called dry steam, is steam that contains just 
sufficient heat to keep the water in a state of steam. 

Superheated steam is steam which has an excess of heat 
which may be parted with without causing condensation. 

A ton mile is a unit of measurement of train weight. It repre¬ 
sents one ton hauled one mile. 

A car mile is also a unit of measurement, when the rating is 
based on cars hauled, and a car mile represents a car hauled one 
mile. 



Handy Rules in Arithmetic 

To find the circumference of a circle multiply its diameter 
by 3.1416. 

To find the diameter of a circle multiply its circumference by 
.31831. 

To find the area of a circle multiply the square of its diameter 
by .7854. 

To find the cubic inches in a ball multiply its cube of diameter 
by .5236. 

To find the revolutions of drivers per mile divide 1680 by the 
diameter of the wheel in feet. 

To find revolutions per minute multiply the speed in miles 
per hour by 28 and divide the product by the diameter of the 
driving wheel in feet. 

To find piston speed in feet per minute multiply revolutions 
per minute by twice the stroke of piston in feet. 

To find the speed of train per second multiply speed in miles 
per hour by 22 and divide by 15. 

To find time when rate of speed and distance is given multiply 
distance by 60 and divide by rate of speed. 

To find rate of speed when distance and time are given, dis¬ 
tance multiplied by 60 and divided by the time in minutes. 

To find the distance when the time and rate of speed.are 
given, multiply the time by the rate of speed and divide by 60. 

To find the number of tons of coal in a bin: Length, height 
and width of pile in feet multiplied together, divide by 30 for 
hard coal, by 35 for soft coal, by 128 for cords of long wood, 
and by 135 for cords of sawed wood. 





British Thermal Unit 


The British thermal unit, generally expressed in the letters 
B. t. u., is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature 
of one pound of water one degree. As a gallon of water weighs 
8% pounds, it requires 8% B. t. u. to raise the temperature of 
one gallon one degree, 16% B. t. u. to raise the temperature two 
degrees, and so on. Thus, when a given coal is said to have a 
heat value of 13,800 B. t. u. per pound, it is meant that if all the 
heat caused by the complete combustion of one pound of that 
coal could be transmitted to 13,800 pounds of water it would raise 
the temperature of that water one degr.ee. Or, if all the heat 
could be transmitted to, say, 138 pounds of water, it would raise 
the temperature of that water just 100 degrees, because 138 x 100 
= 13,800. The pounds of water heated multipled by the number 
of degrees the temperature has been raised equals the number of 
B. t. u. The standard method of finding the heat value of a fuel 
is to burn a small sample of it in a tight steel bomb under water. 
The heat caused by the burning of the sample is then all absorbed 
by the water and by multiplying the weight of the water by its 
rise in temperature and dividing by the weight of the sample, 
the heat value of the coal is calculated direct in B. t. u. per pound. 


18 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


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What Constitutes an Engine 

Failure 


There is ofte.ii controversy as to what constitutes an engine 
failure, especially when it comes to making out reports for fail¬ 
ures to make time or haul full tonnage. What is generally re¬ 
garded as an engine failure on most roads? 

A.—The standard engine failure rules adopted by the Master 
Mechanics’ Association cover the question completely. That part 
covering the engineer’s report is as follows: 

1. All delays on account of engine breaking down, running 
hot, not steaming well, or having to reduce tonnage on account 
of defective engine, making a delay at a terminal, a meeting point, 
a junction connection, or delaying other traffic. 

2. Do not report cases where engines lose time and afterwards 
regain it without delay to connections or other traffic. In cases 
where a passenger or scheduled freight train is delayed from other 
causes and an engine (having a defect) makes up more time 
than she loses on her own account, should not he called an engine 
failure. 

3. Do not report delays to passenger trains when they are less 
than five minutes late at terminal or junction points. 

4. Do not report delays to scheduled freight trains when less 
than twenty minutes late at terminals or junction points. 

5. Do not report delays if engine is given excess tonnage and 
stalls on hill if engine is working and steaming well. 

6. Do not report delays on extra dead freight trains if the run 
is made in less hours than the total miles divided by ten. 

7. Do not report engine failures on account of engines steam¬ 
ing poorly, or flues leaking on any run where the engine has been 
delayed on side tracks other than by defects of engine, on the 
road an unreasonable length of time, say fifteen hours or* more 
per hundred miles. 

8. Do not report delays for cleaning fires and ash pans on the 
road. 

9. Do not report failures against engines coming from outside 
points to shops for repairs. There are more of these rules, but 
they practically mean that engine should not be charged with 
failure when the conditions of service are not normal; this 
includes everything affecting train movement as well as unusual 
delays. 


Pounds in Locomotives 


Pounds are generally caused by slack wedges or rod keys, or 
a loose driving binder. A broken frame or driving-box jaw will 
cause a pound, but quite often their breakage is due to a neg¬ 
lected pound in a rod or box. . 

A loose follower bolt or head, a piston loose on piston -rod, 
or a main rod keyed too long and allowing piston to strike 
cylinder head will cause a pound, and if very bad will result in 
the breakage of the cylinder head itself. A pound of this kind 
is more pronounced when steam is shut off and engine drifting, 
as all the slack in the rod and connections is free to move to the 
limit, there being no steam pressure in cylinder to cushion and 
restrain. A pound of this kind is more noticeable when main 
rod is passing forward center. 

If a pound is caused by a main rod being too long have it 
shortened; if by a loose piston head or any of its parts remove 
cylinder head and tighten the part. 

With a main rod long enough so that packing rings can drop 
into counterbore, and yet not long enough so that piston will 
strike cylinder head, the sound will be much the same as a 
pound and is rather more difficult to locate. The mark will show 
on the edge of the counterbore if cylinder head is taken off and 
an examination made. 

Little can be done for a pound caused by a broken frame or 
pedestal jaw except to work the engine lightly to the terminal 
and have the necessary repairs made there. 

Pounds cause nuts to work loose and fall from bolts, binder 
studs to work out and be lost, and rod straps, pedestal jaws and 
frames to be broken. 

A bad pound at the front end of the main rod is more liable 
to cause a breakage of a strap that any other pound, as the whole 
strain is thrown on the strap when the rod is in tension. In 
keying the front end of a main rod care must be exercised not 
to get the brasses too tight on the wrist pin, as front end brasses 
cut out easily if too tight. Key on lower eighth or quarter. The 
wear is greatest on the front and rear of the wrist pin, owing to 
the direct pull and push of the piston. In keying, the key should 
be driven a little at a time and the front end of the rod moved 
laterally on the wrist pin with a short chisel until, the desired 
tightness of the brass to the pin is secured. 

Owing to the peculiar motion of the front end of a main rod, 
which is a combination of the movement of the cross-head in the 
guides and the crank pin of the main driver to which the back 
end of the main rod is connected, the wear on a wrist pin is 
different than that to which the crank pins are subjected. 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


21 


• The keying of back end of main rods seems to be a matter of 
opinion or individual experience as to the best position of the 
crank pin when key is driven. If a pin is round it makqs not the 
slightest difference as to its position when key is driven, or even 
if the pin is out of round and the man driving the key knows how 
to key at the position the pin is in, for in the other positions the 
crank pin will assume in its revolution no had effects will result. 

The man who keys the hack end of a rod so there will be a 
thump in it at all—with a pin that is much out of round—when 
the engine is given steam and thumped will have trouble. 
Naturally the thump will come where the pin is the smallest, and 
driving the brasses tight at that point will result in a hot pin. 

Where rod grease is used care should be taken to wait until 
the grease in the brasses is well worn out after screwing cup 
plugs down before keying rods, for if the brasses are full of rod 
grease they will not move freely on the pin and one gets the 
impression that the brasses are tight on the pin, when in fact 
they are not. In case one starts the babbitt in a brass it should 
all be thrown out before stopping. Babbitt is seldom thrown out 
where grease cups are used. A pin might become hot from brasses 
being too loose—that is pound hot. If a pm runs hot it is not 
advisable to slacken the rod key at that connection unless key 
has been recently driven and is too tight. Look for some other 
cause for the trouble. 

The side rods should be keyed on the center, as at that point 
the length of the rods will not be changed so as to interfere with 
the revolution of the crank pins. Side rod brasses will not 
pound, but will click if run too loose. If, on keying, a rod is 
found to be too short or too long, the changing of a liner from 
the front to the back of the pin, or vice versa, as the case may re¬ 
quire, will remedy the trouble. If the side rod is too short the 
outside brass will get the hottest; if the rod is too long, the end 
or outside brass will be the hottest. These troubles are not likely 
to occur unless rods have been down and not put up the proper 
length. 

The keying of a double-keyed middle connection of a ten-wheel 
engine should be in the following manner: 

Place engine on center and drive both keys clear out. Put one 
key in and drive it clear down, make a scratch on the key along 
the top of the strap and drive key out. Do the same with the other 
key. Start both keys and drive them down equally, that is, so that 
when brasses are keyed satisfactorily the lines on the keys will 
be equally distant from the top of the strap. The other ends of 
the side rods can then be keyed. Side rods are often put up with 
what are known as solid ends. Brass bushings are fitted into the 
enlarged ends of the rod. When put up they run very nicely, but 
as they wear, while they do not pound, they rattle and make a 
great deal of noise, and as there is no way of keying them up 



22 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


snug to the pin they are often allowed to run in this condition 
a long time before new bushings are submitted for the worn 
ones. 

Properly the wedges should be adjusted before the rods are 
keyed, but on most any engine, except one recently from the shop 
or one that has been neglected, the wedges will be up and rods 
keyed, except as to ordinary wear one becoming loose requires 
them to receive attention. Under the pool system Qn most rail¬ 
roads the adjusting of wedges and, to a large extent, the keying 
of rods is left to the roundhouse force, and as a rule these things 
are not cared for as they should be. 

No one can adjust wedges and key rods as successfully as the 
man running the engine, as he has the opportunity to note any¬ 
thing that is needed and can apply the remedy, but with pooled 
engines it is not reasonable to expect engineers to do this work, 
and the roundhouse having assumed it, should look after it more 
closely than it usually does, for the heavy class of power soon 
pounds itself to pieces when neglected. 

A wedge should be so adjusted that the box can move up and 
down freely in the pedestal jaws without sticking and, at the 
same time, not allow room for the box to pound in the jaws. On 
smooth, well-ballasted track this is not difficult to accomplish, 
but over very rough track wedges will have to be run a little slack 
or else the box will stick and the engine ride very hard. 

The engine should stand on level, straight track when wedges 
are being adjusted, as a curve in the track or an inequality in its 
surface will pinch the box and wedge together, or allow too much 
slack in the boxes on one side on a curve, and a proper adjustment 
can not be obtained. The wedge should be forced up as far as it 
will go and then pulled down a little, say from one-fourth to one- 
half inch, according to the track the engine runs over and the 
condition of the wedge. If the wedge is rough or has a shoulder 
worn on it, the more play will be needed. Taking into considera¬ 
tion the gradual taper of the wedge it will be seen that pulling 
one down one-half inch does not give a very large amount of 
play to the box. 

Where wedges are set up by the roundhouse force, two pinch 
bars, one in front and one behind the wheel, may be used to pinch 
it up and down and show whether or not the box has the proper 
amount of up and down motion in the pedestal jaws. 

When it is desired to get all the slack in a box against the shoe 
before setting up the wedge run the wheel to the box with a 
pound against a block on the wedge side or the wheel at the 
opposite end of the journal against a block on the shoe side. 

After a wedge is set up it should be well oiled before starting 
out. If a wedge bolt breaks, block between the binder and bottom 
of the wedge and between the frame and top of the wedge. It 
may be held in place sometimes by putting washers on the binder 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


23 


and changing the set nut so that it will overlap the break, but 
blocking will usually he quicker and easier to accomplish. 

When a wedge sticks, loosen the set nut on top of the binder 
and tighten nuts under binder, or run wheel over a good sized 
nut; this will pull the wedge down. It may be necessary to cool 
the box down before doing this. If in a hurry, oil the wedge and 
box good, loosen the set nut and go. This treatment ordinarily 
will result in the wedge being loosened and coming down without 
further trouble. 

Stuck wedges are not only hard on the engine, but also on the 
roadbed, and are particularly liable to do damage to bridges, and 
an engine should not be run any distance in that condition, and 
more particularly at a high rate of speed. 

Wedges need more oil in dry weather than in damp, as the 
dust dries up the oil on them the same as on guide bars or other 
parts of the machinery. The top quarter offers the best op¬ 
portunity to work at wedges. 

A loose driving binder will cause a pound similar to a loose 
wedge, and may be caused by loose bolts or the binder being poorly 
fitted to the jaws. The hollow binder with a large bolt through 
it and the binder jaws is preferable, as it is more easily kept tight 
than where the binder is fitted to the lower ends of the pedestal 
jaws and studs are used. These studs are continually working 
loose and getting lost, and causing extra work and expense to 
replace them. 



Mikado Type Locomotives* 


The Mikado type of locomotive, as illustrated and described in 
the following pages, has been developed to meet the present re¬ 
quirements of heavy freight service. The hauling capacity of .a 
locomotive is primarily dependent upon the weight carried on the 
driving wheels, and the locomotive must be so proportioned that 
the tractive force developed bears a suitable relation to this 
weight. High tractive force, however, cannot be developed for 
sustained periods of time unless sufficient steaming capacity is 
provided. This is especially true if speed is an element of con¬ 
sideration, since other things being equal, the higher the speed 
the greater the horse power required; and the maximum horse 
power that a locomotive can develop is directly dependent upon 
the steaming capacity of its boiler. 

The 2-8-2 wheel arrangement, as used in the Mikado type, 
permits the use of a long boiler barrel in combination with a 
wide and deep fire-box, which is placed back of the driving wheels 
and over the trailing truck. The additional weight involved by 
reason of the large boiler is carried on the trailing truck, so that 
the driving wheels are not overloaded thereby. This form of 
fire-box is specially suitable, for burning high volatile coal, as 
there is sufficient furnace volume for the combustion of the gases 
before they enter the tubes. Cases are on record where Mikado 
type locomotives have successfully burned fuel of a quality too 
inferior for use in Consolidation type, engines of equivalent haul¬ 
ing capacity, but having smaller fire-boxes. 

With a given weight on driving wheels and equal ratios of 
adhesion, a Mikado type locomotive will show no superiority over 
a Consolidation as far as starting tractive force is concerned. 
As the speed increases, however, the tractive force of the Mikado 
type will fall off less rapidly than that of the Consolidation, 
because of the greater boiler power of the former locomotive. At 
a speed of thirty miles per hour the Mikado type develops fifty 
per cent of its maximum tractive force, as compared with thirty- 
five per cent for the Consolidation; an increase in favor of the 
Mikado type amounting to forty-three per cent. It should be 
understood, of course, that the curves represent average condi¬ 
tions, and that they are based on. the assumption that the boilers 
of both locomotives are being worked at their maximum evapora¬ 
tive capacities. 

Mikado type locomotives, because of their wheel arrangement, 
are specially suitable for service in which it is frequently neces¬ 
sary to run backward. The rear truck, under such circum- 


* Courtesy of Baldwin Locomotive Works. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


25 


stances, protects the driving wheels against flange wear, and 
guides the locomotive into sharp curves and switches without 
danger of derailment. It is largely for this reason that Mikado 
type locomotives have proved specially successful on short in¬ 
dustrial lines, where powerful locomotives are needed for both 
switching and road service. 

On Consolidation type locomotives having wide fire-boxes and 
comparatively large driving wheels, the depth of the furnace 
throat is necessarily restricted, and it is difficult to apply a satis¬ 
factory design of brick arch. This difficulty is avoided in the 
Mikado type, as there is ample space, between the grate and 
bottom row of flues, for an arch with its supporting tubes. The 
arch is an important addition to the furnace equipment, especially 
when burning high volatile coal. 

The majority of the large Mikado type locomotives now in 
service and being built, are equipped with superheaters, and are 
making excellent records for capacity and economy. The super¬ 
heater is of special value when making long, hard runs, requiring 
the locomotive to develop high power for sustained periods of 
time. Under favorable conditions Mikado type locomotives with 
superheaters, replacing Consolidation engines using saturated 
steam, are hauling thirty to forty-five per cent more tonnage per 
train with no increase in actual coal consumption. 

The locomotive illustrated and described in the following 
pages is equipped with the Ragonnet power reserve mechanism. 
This device greatly lessens the amount of labor required to handle 
the engine, and saves valuable space in the cab, as the mechanism 
is controlled by a small hand lever. 

With a weight limitation of 60,000 pounds per driving axle, 
which it is seldom advisable to exceed even with the best track 
conditions, a Mikado type locomotive can carry 240,000 pounds on 
driving wheels and can exert a tractive force of 60,000 pounds. 
Such engines, equipped with superheaters, represent the maximum 
tractive and steaming capacity thus far attained in eight-coupled 
locomotives. 



26 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



Built by Baldwin Locomotive Works for Erie Railroad Company. 






MIKADO OR 2-8 2 TYPE OF LOCOMOTIVE 









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1. Headlight. 

2. Headlight Bracket. 

3. Number Plate. 

4. Smoke-box Front. 

5. Smoke-box Front Door. 

«. Signal Lamp Bracket. 

7. Running Board Step. 

8. Running Board Step Bracket. 

9. Bumper Brace. 

10. Truck Center Bolt. 

11. Truck Center Bolt Nut. 

12. Truck Center Pin. 

13. Bumper Bracket. 

14. Flag Socket. 

15. Uncoupling Arm. 

10. Uncoupling Lever. 

17. Drawhead. 

18. Coupling. 

19. Pilot Bar. 

20. Pilot. 

21 . Pilot Nosing. 

22. Pilot Brace. 

23. Pilot Bracket. 

24. Front Bumper Beam. 

25. Bumper Step. 

26. Bumper Step. 

27. Truck Swing Frame. 

28. Truck Swing Bolster. 

29. Truck Pedestal. 

30. Truck Swing Link. 

31. Truck Spring. 

32. Truck Pedestal Thimble. 

33. Truck Radius Bar Brace. 

34. Truck Axle. 

35. Truck Wheel. 

36. Piston Head. 

37. Piston Rod Extension. 

38. Piston Rod Extension Guide. 

39. Piston Rod Extension Guide 

Bracket. 

40. Piston Packing Rings. 

41. Cylinder. 

42. Front Cylinder Head. 

43. Back Cylinder Head. 

44. Cylinder Cock. 

45. Cylinder Cock Lifting Rod. 

46. Cylinder Casing. 

47. Cylinder Head Vacuum Valve. 

48. Piston Hod Extension Guide 

Cover. 

49. Piston Valve Body. 

50. Piston Valve Stem. 

51. Piston Valve Packing Rings. 

52. Piston Valve Bushing. 

53. Front Piston Valve Casing. 

54. Pack Piston Valve Casing and 

Guido Support. 

55. Live Steam Space. 

56. Exhaust Steam Space. 

57. Steam Port. 

58. Cylinder Saddle. 

59. Exhaust Passage. 

60. Longtitudinal Equalizer. 

61. Equalizer Fulcrum. 

62. Equalizer Fulcrum Pin. 

63. Link Motion Combination 

Lever. 

64. Link Motion Union Link. 

65. Link Motion Radius Bar. 

66. Link Motion Radius Bar 

Hanger. 

67. Link. 

68. Link Bracket. 

69. Eccentric Rod. 

70. Eccentric Crank. 


71. Crosshead. 

72. Crosshead Arm. 

73. Wrist Pin. 

74. Top Guide. 

75. Bottom Guide. 

76. Valve Rod Guide. 

77. Forward Springs and Truck 

Equalizer Hanger. 

78. Driver Spring Band. 

79. Driver Spring. 

80. Driving Spring Saddle. 

81. Spring Hanger. 

82. Driving Spring Equalizer. 

83. Wrist Pin Bearing Key. 

84. Guide Yoke. 

85. Spring Equalizer. 

86. Guide Bearer Bracket. 


87. Equalizer Fulcrum. 

88. Spring Hanger Key. 

89. Sand Pipe. 

90. Guide Yoke Step. 

91. Driver Brake Cylinder. 

92. Driver Brake Cylinder Lever. 

93. Driver Brake Pull Angle. 

94. Driver Brake Adjusting Block. 

95. Driver Brake Adjusting Screw. 

96. Driver Brake Shoe. 

97. Driver Brake Shoe Hanger. 

98. Driver Brake Pull Rod. 

99. Driver Brake Hanger Bracket. 

100. Frame Brace. 

101. Main Driving Rod. 

102. Forward Side Rod. 

103. Intermediate Side Rod. 


104. Back Side Rod. 

105. Main Crank Pin. 

106. Forward Crank Pin. 

107. Intermediate Crank Pin. 

108. Back Crank Pin. 

109. Forward Side Rod Knuckle 

Pin. 

110. Back Side Rod Knuckle Pin. 

111. Main Rod Bearing. 

112. Main Rod Strap Bolts. 

113. Eccentric Pin. 

114. Frame Brace. 

115. Driving Axle. 

116. Driving Axle Key. 

117. Main Frame. 

118. Main Rod Strap. 

119. Frame Pedestal Cap. 


135. Trailing Truck Equalizer 

Spring Hanger. 

136. Trailing Truck Spring Hanger 

Seat. 

137. Trailing Truck Equalizer 

Spring. 

138. Trailing Truck Equalizer. 

139. Journal Box Trailing. 

140. Ash Pan Dumping Cylinder. 

141. Ash Pan Dumping Cylinder 

Rod. 

142. Ash Pan Slide. 

143. Ash Pan Slide Guide. 

144. Ash Pan Slide Connections. 

145. Ash Pan Slide Connections 

Arm. 

146. Ash Pan Dumping Cylinder 

Rod Extension. 


147. Ash Pan Slide 1 

' onnection 

Arm Bracket. 


148. Trailing Truck 

Equalizer 

Spring Seat. 


149. Grate sliakn- < vlinder 

Support. 


ISO. Brake Shoe Hanger Support. 

151. Frame Extcnsioi 


152. Smoke-box Ki'ig 


153. Smoke-box Shell 


154. Smokestack. 


155. Smokestack l >ro . 

jection. 

156. Smokestack r. throat. 

157. Headlight St. p. 


158. Perforated lVflt" 

or or Smoke- 

box Netting- 


159. Deflecting Plnl'" 

Bottom. 


160. Superheater Damper. 

161. Superheater Damper Cylinder. 

162 . Steam Pipe. 

163. Deflecting Plato Back. 

164. Exhaust Nozzle. 

165. Exhaust Pipe. 

166. Steam Pipe Casing. 

167. Steam Pipe Casing Flange. 

168. Superheater Damper Cylinder 

Feed Pipe. 

169. Superheater Tee Head. 

Ground Flange. 

170. Superheater Tee Head. 

171. Superheater Tubes. 

172. Superheater Return Bend 

Front Connections. 


173. Superheater Damper Cylinder 

Counter Weight. 

174. Front Tube Sheet. 

175. Dry Pipe Stiffening Ring. 

176. Dry Pipe Sleeve. 

177. Dry Pipe. 

178. Sand Dome. 

179. Sand Dome Cap. 

180. Main Sand Pipe. 

181. Sand Box. 

182. Sand Box Step. 

183. Front Tube Sheet Brace. 

184. Front Course of Bdiler Shell. 

185. Bell. 

186. Bell Stand. 

187. Boiler Lagging. 

188. Boiler Casing or Jacketing. 


189. Boiler Course Intermediate. 

190. Superheater Pipe Supports. 

191. Boiler Tube. 

192. Boiler Check Valve. 

193. Injector Delivery Pipe. 

194. Intermediate Check Valve. 

195. Injector Delivery Pipe Support. 

196. Reverse Spring Casing. 

197. Reverse Spring Rod. 

198. Reverse Shaft. 

199. Reverse Shaft Crank. 

200. Reverse Shaft Reach Rod. 

201. Reverse Shaft Reach Rod 

Support. 

202. Running Board Bracket. 

203. Reservoir Hanger. 

204. Main Reservoir. 


205. 

206. 

207. 

208. 

209. 

210 . 

211. 

212 . 

213. 

214. 

215. 

216. 

217. 

218. 
219. 
2 20 . 


Boiler Waist Sheet. 

Boiler Waist Sheet Angle. 
Washout Flange and Cap. 
Grate Shaker Lever. 

Grate Shaker Lever Fulcrum. 
Grate Shaker Cylinder Con 
nection Rod. 

Grate Shaker Bracket. 

Grate Shaker Cylinder. 
Handrail. 

Handrail Post. 

Dry Pipe Elbow. 

Dry Pipe Bracket. 

Throttle Casing. 


221 . 

J22 
2 23. 


JiO. 

226. 
227 
2 28 

229 

230 

231 
2 32 
233 

34. 


Back Tube Sheet. 

Reverse Shaft Reach Rod 
Guide and Casing. 
Running Board. 

Fire-box Throat Sheet Brai 
Throat Sheet. 

Mud Ring. 

Arch Tube. 

Brick Arch. 

Stay Bolts. 

Reach Rod Guide Screw Coi 
nection. 

Reversing Gear Screw Guidi 


235. Reversing Screw. 

236. Reversing Gear Support. 

237. Reversing Gear Hand Wheel. 

238. Reversing Gear Catch. 

239. Safety Valves. 

240. Safety Valve Casing. 

241. Roof Sheet. 

241. Expansion Stay Bolts. 

243. Longitudinal Brace. 

244. Back Head Angle Brace. 

245. Crown Sheet. 

246. Whistle Connecting Rod Front. 

247. Whistle Bell Crank. 

248. Whistle Bell Crank Bracket. 

249. Whistle Connecting Rod Rear. 

250. Whistle Operating Lever. 

251. Whistle Operating Lever 

Bracket. 

252. Throttle Stem Bracket. 

253. Throttle Stuffing Box. 

254. Throttle Lever. 

255. Throttle Lever Quadrant. 

256. Throttle Lever Fulcrum. 

257. Throttle Lever Latch. 

258. Water Gauge. 

259. Air Gauge. 

260. Steam Gauge. 

261. Gauge Stand. 

262. Steam Gauge Goose Neck. 

263. Injector. 

264. Injector Steam Pipe. 

265. Injector Steam Valve. 

266. Injector Suction Pipe. 

267. Injector Overflow Pipe. 

268. Injector Suction Pipe Support. 

269. Injector Suction Pipe Valve. 

270. Injector Suction Pipe 

Strainer. 

271. Cab Ventilator Cover. 

272. Cab Ventilator. 

273. Cab Roof. 

274. Cab Roof Overhang. 

275. Cab Back. 

276. Cab Bracket. 

277. Cab Handle. 

278. Cab Seat. 

279. Cab Window. 

280. Back Head. 

281. Back Sheet of Fire box. 

282. Fire-box Opening. 

283. Fire-box Door. 

284. Dead Grate. 

285. Rocking Grate. 

286. Rocking Orate Connecting 

Rods. 

287. Dome Casing. 

288. Dome Cap. 

289. Dome. 

290. Dome Stiffening Ring. 

291. Dome Boiler Course. 

292. Ash Pan. 

293. Ash Pan Hopper. 

294. Piston Rod. 

295. Piston Valve Rod Extension 

Guide. 

296. Piston Valve Rod Guide 

Bracket. 

297. Radius Bar. 

298. Radius Bar Cross-tie. 

299. Guido Bearer. 

300. Whistle. 

301. Radial Stay Bolts. 

302. Fire-box. 

303. Combustion Chamber. 


120. Frame Brace. 

121. Foot Plate. 

122. Chafing Block. 

123. Chafing Plate. 

124. Driving Tire. 

125. Driving Wheel Center. 

126. Main Driving Counterbalance. 

127. Intermediate Driver Counter¬ 

balance. 

128. Journal Box Driving. 

129. Eccentric Rod Link Pin. 

130. Trailing Axle. 

131. Trailing Wheel Center. 

132. Trailing Tire. 

133. Trailing Truck Pedestal 

Thimble. 

134. Trailing Truck Spring. 


27) 


4 8 


2Ai 




277 ' 


/23 


/22 


■J’i 




























































































































































































































































. 





















1 































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


27 


MIKADO TYPE LOCOMOTIVE 
(Built by Baldwin Locomotive Works for Erie Railroad Company.) 
Railroad Co.’s Class N-l Baldwin Class 12-5014-E, 22 

Gauge 4' 8%" 


GENERAL DIMENSIONS 


CYLINDERS 


Diameter .28" 

Stroke .32" 

Valves .Balance Piston 

BOILER 

Type .Straight 

Material .Steel 

Diameter .84" 

Thickness of Sheets. 

Working Presure.170 lbs. 

Fuel .Coal 

Staying.Radial 


DRIVING WHEELS 


Diameter, outside .63" 

Diameter, center .56" 

Journals .11" x 14" 


ENGINE TRUCK WHEELS 

Diameter, front .33^4" 

Journals.6" x 12" 

Diameter, back.42" 

Journals.8" x 14" 


FIRE-BOX 

Material .Steel 

Length .120" 

Width .84" 

Depth, front .88%" 

Depth, back .72 %" 

Thickness of Sheets, .sides, %" 
back, %"; crown, %"; tube,%" 
Water Space, 

front, 6"; sides, 6"; back, 6" 


TUBES 


Diameter .5Ms" and 2%" 

Material .5%", Steel 

2 1 / 4", Iron 

Thickness . . . .5%", No. 9 W. G. 

20.125" 
Number . .. .5%", 36; 2*4", 232 
Length.21' 0" 


WHEEL BASE 


Driving .16' 6" 

Rigid .16' 6" 

Total Engine .35' 0" 

Total Engine and 
Tender .66' 10%" 


WEIGHT 


On Driving Wheels .236,950 lbs. 

On Truck, front.30,200 lbs. 

On Truck, back.54,900 lbs. 

Total Engine .322,050 lbs. 

Total Engine and 
Tender, about . .. .485,000 lbs. 


HEATING SURFACE 


Fire-box . .188 sq. ft. 

Tubes .3936 sq. ft. 

Firebrick Tubes .31 sq. ft. 

Total .4155 sq.ft. 

Superheating Surface.877 sq. ft. 
Grate Area.70 sq. ft. 


TENDER 


Number of Wheels.8 

Diameter of Wheels.33" 

Journals.6" x 11" 

Tank Capacity.9,000 gals. 

Fuel Capacity.16 tons 










































Questions and Answers on 
Compound Locomotives 

Q.—How do compound locomotives differ from the ordinar-y or 
simple engines? 

A.—The principal difference between a compound locomotive 
and a simple engine is in the way the steam is used. In a simple 
engine the steam is admitted to the cylinder, expands in that 
cylinder to a low pressure and is then exhausted directly to the 
atmosphere. In a compound locomotive there are two cylinders 
in place of one, one for high pressure steam and the other for low 
pressure steam. The steam from the boiler is admitted first to 
the high pressure cylinder, expands in that cylinder until its 
pressure is partly reduced and then is exhausted into a low 
pressure cylinder, either directly or through some form of re¬ 
ceiver. It again expands in this second cylinder to a low pressure, 
when it is exhausted directly to the atmosphere, giving two ex¬ 
pansions of the steam instead of one. 

Q.—Why are the cylinders on a compound locomotive known 
as high pressure and low pressure cylinders? 

A.—One cylinder is called a high pressure cylinder because the 
steam is admitted to it direct from the boiler, whereas the other 
cylinder is known as a low pressure cylinder because when the 
engine is working compound this low pressure cylinder does not 
receive steam direct from the boiler, but only receives the exhaust 
steam from the high pressure cylinder, which is at a compara¬ 
tively low pressure. 

Q.—What advantages are claimed for a compound locomotive? 

A.—There are several advantages claimed for the compound 
locomotives: First, the principle of compounding an engine is 
known to give more economical results in stationary practice 
than the use of steam with a single expansion, and it is reason¬ 
able to expect similar results in locomotive service. Second, a 
more uniform crank-pin pressure is obtained with a compound 
locomotive and there is less liability of slipping, and a more even 
pull is developed when the engine is moving slowly on a hard 
pull. Third, the saving in fuel accomplished by compounding 
steam allows more power to be developed from a certain boiler 
than could be expected with the same boiler if the steam was 
used in a simple engine. 

Q.—What is the duty of the oil dashpot in the Schenectady two- 
cylinder compound? 

A.—The oil dashpot in the Schenectady compound prevents the 
intercepting valve from moving so rapidly in changing from 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


29 


simple to compound or back again, that it will slam on its seat 
and injure the parts. 

Q.—Is it necessary to know that the oil dashpot is full of oil? 
Why? 

A.—It is necessary that this dashpot be kept full of oil, because 
otherwise the movement of the intercepting valve will not be 
properly regulated, due to the air in the dashpot not forming a 
proper cushion. 

Q.—How can a Schenectady two-cylinder compound be operated 
as a simple engine? 

A.—All that is necessary in order to change a Schenectady 
compound from compound to a simple, or to operate it as a simple 
engine, is to turn the handle of the emergency operating valve to 
the position marked “simple,” which will automatically admit 
boiler steam at reduced pressure to the low pressure cylinder and 
allow the high pressure exhaust to go direct to the stack. This 
should never be done, however, except at slow speed and after the 
reverse lever is in the corner. 

Q.—When is it proper to operate a Schenectady compound as a 
simple engine? 

A.—The only time that a Schenectady compound should be 
operated as a simple engine is when starting with a heavy train 
or on a grade, or when the speed of the engine is reduced on a 
heavy pull so that there is danger of stalling. The engine should 
be changed back to compound as soon as the train is started or 
the danger of stalling is past. 

Q.—Why is it not good policy to operate as simple when run¬ 
ning fast? 

A.—The size of the ports is such that if the engine is operated 
as simple at any other than slow speed it will be choked and will 
never run as well or use the steam as economically as when run 
compound. 

Q.—Explain how to change a two-cylinder compound from a 
simple to a compound. 

A.—If the engine is being .run simple, and the handle of the 
operating valve is moved to the compound position, the engine 
will automatically change so as to work the steam on the com¬ 
pound principle. 

Q.—What moves the intercepting valve in the two-cylinder 
compound? 

A.—Steam pressure. 

Q.—How should oil be furnished to a compound locomotive? 

A.—Besides the usual feeds to the two cylinders there is an 
additional pipe from the lubricator to the reducing and intercept¬ 
ing valve chamber, also a small oil cup in the connection leading 
to the separate exhaust valve. When using steam, about two- 
thirds of the oil for the cylinders should go to the high pressure 
cylinder and one-third to the low pressure; when drifting this 




30 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


should he just reversed, the two-thirds going to the low pressure 
cylinder. One drop per minutes is enough to lubricate both the 
reducing and intercepting valves. A little valve oil once or twice 
a day is eno.ugh for the separate exhaust valve. 

Q.—Why should more oil be fed to a high than a low pressure 
cylinder when using steam? 

A.—An extra amount of oil should be supplied to the high 
pressure cylinder because some of this oil will be carried over 
with the exhaust steam to the low pressure cylinder, and in this 
way will provide partial lubrication for the low pressure cylinder. 

Q.—How should water be carried in the boiler of a compound 
locomotive? 

A.—Care should be taken not to carry the water so high that 
it will be carried over into the cylinders with the steam. 

Q.—Give reasons for your answer to the last question. 

A.—First, if water were carried into the cylinder with the 
steam it would wash the lubrication off from the valves and 
cylinder walls, increasing th'e friction and possibly causing cutting 
of the valves or cylinder. Second, with piston valves, water in 
the cylinder is liable to cause the valve rings to break or may 
burst the cylinder head. Third, it is absolutely necessary that 
dry steam be furnished a compound engine if economical results 
are expected, and the water must be carried low enough to insure 
this. 

Q.—How would you start a long train with a compound loco¬ 
motive? 

A.—Place the reverse lever in full gear ahead. Move the 
handle of the starting valve to the simple position and start train 
as usual, moving the handle of the starting valve to the com¬ 
pound position as soon as the train has picked up speed to three 
or four miles an hour, and hooking up the reverse lever as the 
train further increases its speed. 

Q.—In what position should the separate exhaust valve handle, 
cylinder cocks and port cocks be when drifting? 

A.—The separate exhaust valve handle should be in the simple 
position except when the air leakage is too great to allow this. 
The cylinder and port cocks should be closed. Their use is to 
drain the water from the engine before starting, not to act as relief 
valves. The throttle should be open a slight amount to provide 
lubrication and allow the engine to drift more freely. 

Q.—When two exhausts of air blow from the three-way cock 
when the handle is moved from simple to compound position, 
what is the cause? 

A.—When the handle of the three-way cock is moved from 
simple to compound position the air holding the valve open im¬ 
mediately escapes, and then the valve in closing forces what air 
remains in the cylinder out, thus causing a second exhaust. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


31 


Q.—If steam blows at the three-way cock what does it indicate? 

A.—It indicates leakage by the separate exhaust valve piston 
packing rings. 

Q.—If the engine does not change to compound when the 
pressure on the separate exhaust valve is released by the three- 
way cock, what is wrong and what should be done? 

A.—Should the'''engine not change to compound it indicates 
that the separate exhaust valve has not closed. This is often 
caused by using a poor grade of oil to lubricate this valve. It 
can sometimes be remedied by giving the valve a good dose of 
kerosene, and, when open, lubricating properly with valve oil. 

Q.—If the engine will not move when given steam, what is the 
cause and the remedy? 

A.—In this case examination will show that the high pressure 
side is on the dead center. The trouble is due to the sticking of 
the reducing valve in its closed position, or of the intercepting 
valve in its compound position, the cause being lack of lubrication 
or water carried too high. If the intercepting valve stem stands 
out about seven inches it shows it is stuck in the compound posi¬ 
tion, and several light taps will usually be enough to start it if 
the throttle is open and nothing broken. If the intercepting 
valve is clear in (about three inches showing), then the reducing 
valve has stuck shut. Usually a few sharp blows on the back 
head of the intercepting valve, with throttle open, will start it, 
and in either of these cases the engine will then be all right, if 
properly lubricated immediately. 

Q.—Explain your answer to last question. 

A.—The reason the engine will not move with these valves 
stuck and the high pressure side on the center is that in this case 
there is no way for steam to pass to the low pressure side to 
move the high pressure side off from the center. 

Q.—How should a compound be disconnected in case of a 
breakdown? 

A.—Remember that by moving the separate exhaust valve to 
simple position the engine is made to work practically the same 
as a simple engine, so that in the event of a breakdown with a 
compound locomotive, even though the engine must be dis¬ 
connected on one side, the breakdown can be treated exactly as 
though the engine were simple, and no matter whether the break¬ 
down is on the high pressure or the low pressure side, moving the 
separate exhaust valve to the simple position will allow either the 
high pressure or the low pressure cylinder to take steam and 
exhaust it as though it were a simple engine. In case of an air 
pump failure a block can be placed behind the separate exhaust 
valve piston in such a way as to hold this valve open and allow 
the engine to operate simple, if the train is heavy enough to 
require it. 



32 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—How can the pressure be shut off from the low pressure 
steam chest and cylinder? 

A.—To shut off the steam from the low pressure steam chest 
and cylinder the intercepting valve must be removed from its 
chamber and a block placed in front of the reducing valve in such 
a manner as to hold it shut when the intercepting valve is put 
back in place and the steam admitted to the engine. 

Q.—Should a Schenectady two-cylinder compound be moved 
before the air pressure is pumped up on it? 

A—No. 

Q.—Give reasons. 

A.—Because the separate exhaust valve is moved by the air 
pressure and the engine can not be changed from compound to 
simple unless this valve is in working order, so that if the engine 
stopped with the high pressure side on the dead center, or if heavy 
switching had to be done, the engine could not be handled satis¬ 
factorily. 

Q.—How can the blows in a compound locomotive be located? 

A.—When the engine is worked simple any blow by the valves 
or cylinder packing on either side can be located in the same 
manner as on a simple engine. If the emergency exhaust valve 
is leaking, a steady blow can be heard at the stack between the 
exhausts when the engine is working compound. To test for 
leakage by the intercepting Valve packing rings, block the engine, 
place the handle of the separate exhaust valve in the simple posi¬ 
tion and open the throttle. A blow at the stack indicates leakage 
by these rings, providing the high pressure valve and cylinder 
packing is tight. A leak by the packing rings of the reducing 
valve will be indicated by steam showing at the drip pipe in the 
reducing valve chamber. 

Q.—Why are the by-pass valves used and how are they con¬ 
nected? 

A.—The by-pass valves are used to relieve the cylinders of any 
pressure that may be produced in them when the engine is drift¬ 
ing. In the Schenectady compound these by-pass valves are held 
to their seats by the steam pressure from the steam chest as long 
as the throttle is open, but when drifting any pressure formed 
in the cylinder will raise them, and when raised there is a direct 
communication from one end of the cylinder to the other, by these 
valves. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


33 


SCHENECTADY TANDEM COM¬ 
POUND LOCOMOTIVE 


Q.—Why is the name “Tandem Compound” given to the 
■Schenectady four-cylinder compound locomotives in service? 

A.—The word tandem means “one after another,” and in the 
Schenectady four-cylinder compound locomotives the low pressure 
cylinder is placed directly behind the high pressure cylinder on 
each side of the engine, the two pistons being mounted on the 
same piston rod, thus giving use for the expression “Tandem 
Compound Locomotives.” 

Q.—In the tandem compound locomotive, does the steam ex¬ 
haust from the cylinder on one side to the cylinder on the other 
side, as it does in the cross compounds? 

A.—No. 

Q.—In the tandem compound locomotive do the valves give 
inside or outside admission of the steam? 

A.—The valves of the high pressure cylinders give inside ad¬ 
mission and the valves of the low pressure cylinders give outside 
admission of the steam. 

Q.—How are the steam ports of these engines arranged so that 
one valve rod can operate both an outside and inside admission 
valve? 

A.—The steam ports from the high pressure steam chest to 
the high pressure cylinder are crossed by each other; the front 
port leading to the back of the cylinder and the back port leading 
to the front of the cylinder, whereas the steam ports from the low 
pressure steam chest are direct. These cross ports in the high 
pressure cylinder allow one valve rod to operate properly both an 
inside and outside admission valve. 

Q.—Describe the course followed by the steam from the steam 
pipes to the atmosphere when the engine is working compound. 

A.—In order to answer this question it must be remembered: 
First, that the high pressure valve has inside admission and that 
the steam ports to the high pressure cylinder cross each other; 
the port from the front end of the valve going to the* back end of 
the cylinder, and that from the back of the valve to the front end 
of the cylinder. Second, it must be remembered that both the 
high and low pressure valves are hollow and are both connected 
to the same valve rod, and are in a common steam chamber. 
Third, that the low pressure valve has an outside admission and 
that the ports from the low pressure valve to the low pressure 
cylinder are direct. The boiler pressure from the steam pipes 
surrounds the high pressure valve between its heads, and as the 




34 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


valve moves ahead the steam is admitted to the front steam port 
and passes to the back end of the high pressure cylinder. Any 
exhaust steam in the forward end of the high pressure cylinder 
passes out the back port, which is uncovered when the valve 
moves ahead and passes into the common steam chamber in which 
both hollow valves move. The low pressure valve being con¬ 
nected on the same valve rod as the high pressure valve moves 
ahead with this valve, and having an outside admission opens the 
port to the back end of the low pressure cylinder, and the high 
pressure exhaust passing through the hollow valve and the back 
steam port acts on the back of the low pressure piston, the steam 
in the front end of the low pressure cylinder going direct to the 
exhaust. On the return stroke the valves move back, steam is 
admitted through the back steam port to the front end of the high 
pressure cylinder and is exhausted from the back end of the high 
pressure cylinder through the front steam port and passes through 
the hollow high pressure valve and is admitted to the front end 
of the low pressure cylinder, the steam in the back end of the low 
pressure cylinder being exhausted direct to the stack. 

Q.—How can a tandem compound be operated as a simple 
engine, and when should this be done? 

A.—To operate a tandem compound as a simple engine, the 
starting valve lever in the cab should be placed in simple position, 
in which position live steam is admitted to both the high and low 
pressure cylinders. A tandem should only be operated as a simple 
engine in starting a train, or when there is danger of stalling on a 
grade, and then only long enough to get the train started or until 
the danger of stalling is past. 

Q.—Into what steam passages is the starting valve connected? 

A.—The starting valve is connected into both the front and the 
back steam ports to the high pressure cylinder. 

Q.—Explain the manner in which the movement of the start¬ 
ing valve causes the engine to operate simple. 

A.—The movement of the starting valve lever to the simple 
position opens a valve which admits steam directly from the 
steam chamber of the chest to the bottom of the by-pass valves. 
This pressure raises the by-pass valves and opens direct com¬ 
munication from one high pressure steam port to the other. This 
not only allows the boiler pressure to act on the high pressure 
piston, but also allows it to pass to the corresponding side of the 
low pressure piston, causing the engine to work boiler pressure 
steam in both cylinders. 

Q.—Besides the starting valve what other valves are contained 
in the starting valve casting? 

A.—The by-pass valves. 

Q.—What kind of a lubricator is used on a tandem compound? 

A.—A tandem compound is usually provided with a five-feed 
sight-feed lubricator. The five feeds lead one to each high 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


35 


pressure and one to each low pressure cylinder and one to the air 
pump. 

Q.—How should the tandem compound he lubricated? 

A.—When using steam the high pressure cylinders should 
receive about two-thirds of the oil allowance and the low pressure 
cylinders about one-third. The reverse being the rule when the 
engine is drifting. 

Q.—Should a breakdown occur with a Schenectady tandem 
compound, how should the engine he disconnected? 

A.—When necessary to disconnect a tandem compound on the 
road the same methods should be used as with a simple engine, as 
regards the removal of parts, blocking of the crosshead, and clamp¬ 
ing the valve and going in on the other side. 

Q.—If you blew out high pressure cylinder head on a Schenec¬ 
tady compound how would you disconnect? If a low pressure 
cylinder head, how would you disconnect? 

A.—The instructions of the American Locomotive Company 
are: “Should the high pressure side become disabled disconnect, 
block, cover the ports and open separate exhaust valve same as 
when running simple. Should the low pressure side become dis¬ 
abled block, cover the ports and open separate exhaust valve.” 
In case the engine should be without air for the operation of 
separate exhaust valve a block, preferably of wood, about three 
inches thick, should be used, inserted in the valve cylinder by 
removal of the head and the head again replaced over the block. 

Q.—If you broke a by-pass valve on a high pressure cylinder 
what would you do? What if on a low pressure side? 

A.—Take off the valve body and insert a blind gasket between 
it and the cylinder. 

Q.—What should be done if the by-pass valve breaks on low 
pressure side of Schenectady compound? 

A.—To locate a defective by-pass valve on the low pressure 
side of a Schenectady two-cylinder compound, the engine should 
be placed on upper quarter on the low pressure side and the lever 
reversed in forward motion. The separate exhaust valve should 
be closed by placing the three-way cock in the compound position 
to admit steam to the cylinder. Then if a blow came from the 
exhaust the defect would be found in the forward by-pass valve. 
Should a blow occur with the lever in the back motion (engine 
in same position), the defect would be found in the back by-pass 
valve. 

Q.—What should be done if the by-pass valve breaks on high 
pressure side of Schenectady compound? 

A.—The same as for the low pressure side, except that in this 
case, the separate exhaust valve would be opened by placing the 
three-way cock in simple position. A blow from a broken by-pass 
valve may easily be distinguished from other blows. It is very 




36 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


strong, occurring only during one stroke of the piston. For ex¬ 
ample: If the blow occurs during the forward stroke, the defect 
would be found in the forward valve. To remedy it, the by-pass 
valve casing should be removed from the side of the cylinder and 
both openings covered with a thin copper or sheet-iron gasket; 
then the casing should be replaced. 

Q.—What should be done when a cylinder head is broken on 
a Schenectady compound? 

A.—If the high pressure side were disabled it should be dis¬ 
connected and blocked, the ports covered and the separate exhaust 
valve opened the same as when running simple. If the low pres¬ 
sure side were disabled, would block, cover the ports and open 
the separate exhaust valve. In the event the engine was without 
air for the operation of the separate exhaust valve, would remove 
head from cylinder and insert a block, preferably of wood, about 
three inches thick, and replace the head over the block. 

Q.—What should be done if a steam chest breaks on a two- 
cylinder Schenectady compound? 

A.—If a low pressure steam chest were broken the high pres¬ 
sure side should be used as a simple engine, which could be done 
by taking out the intercepting valve and blocking the reducing 
valve in the closed position, so that when the intercepting valve 
has been replaced, steam could not get to the low pressure side 
with the intercepting valve in simple position. 

Q.—What should be done if a forward motion eccentric on left 
side were broken down on Schenectady compound? 

A.—The ports covered, valve rod disconnected, the remnant of 
the broken eccentric removed, and also the back motion and the 
main rod taken down and live steam used in the low pressure 
cylinder to run the engine. 

Q.—What should be done when valve rings break on a 
Schenectady compound? 

A.—If the rings were not caught in the ports, would use less 
throttle than when ordinarily working the engine compound. The 
steam which would leak by the broken rings would pass into the 
receiver, and could do effective work in the low pressure cylinder. 

Q.—How should test be made for a blow in low pressure 
cylinder of Schenectady cross compound? 

A.—The handle of the operating valve should be moved to 
simple position, and the test made in the usual manner the same 
as for a simple engine. 

Q.—What should be done when a low pressure head is gone 
from a Schenectady cross compound? 

A.—The valve stem on the disabled side should be discon¬ 
nected, the valve blocked in the center of the seat, the separate 
exhaust valve opened and the engine run on one side. 

Q.—What should be done when a high pressure cylinder head 
is blown off a Schenectady cross compound. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


37 


A.—The valve stem on the high pressure side should be dis¬ 
connected, the ports covered, the engine cut into simple position 
and run on one side. The separate exhaust valve should be kept 
open, so that in case the high pressure valve were to leak or 
shift, steam would not bank up in the receiver and temporarily 
interfere with the working of the engine. 

Q.—What should be done when a transmission bar is broken 
on a Schenectady cross compound? 

A.—If the transmission bar were broken on the right or low 
pressure side, the broken parts should be removed if they would 
be likely to interfere and cause further damage, and the valve 
blocked central. The excess pressure valves in the low pressure 
cylinder heads should then be removed, the separate exhaust 
valve opened, and engine run on one side. If the left or high 
pressure side transmission bar were broken, the same procedure 
should be followed for the right side, except that it would be 
necessary in that case to cut the engine into simple position. If 
there were no excess pressure valves in the cylinder heads, it 
also would be necessary, in order to oil the piston, either to loosen 
up the front cylinder head, or block the valve so that the back 
port would be opened enough to admit a little steam. This would 
allow the lubricator on that side to be worked to keep the 
cylinder oiled. Taking down the main rod would be inadvisable, 
as the engine might get stuck on the center, and, in that event, 
it would be heeded to help get it off. 





Questions and Answers on 
Mallet Locomotives, Break¬ 
downs and Operating 
Rules 

Q.—How would you start a locomotive of this type? 

A.—Always open the cylinder cocks before opening the throttle. 
With the Baldwin type, if the train is heavy, open the starting 
valve. With the American type, try to start the train with the 
reverse lever down in the corner. If the engine can not start 
the train in this way, open the emergency operating valve in the 
cab by pointing the handle to the rear. 

Q.—After the train is started, how would you handle the 
locomotive? 

A.—After a speed has been reached of three or four miles per 
hour, close the starting valve, on the Baldwin type, and close the 
emergency valve, on the American type, as you would simply be 
burning more coal with these valves open without getting any 
more power out of the engine. 

Q.—How would you proceed if you were about to stall on a 
grade? 

A.—With either engine, if the speed is below three or four 
miles per hour, proceed the same as when starting a heavy train. 

Q.—In what position would you carry the reverse lever when 
drifting? 

A.—At about three-quarters stroke or more. 

Q.—What attention should be given the power reversing gear? 

A.—Keep the oil cylinder full of oil, and the piston rod pack¬ 
ing on the oil and air cylinders tight. Always see that the latches 
of both reverse levers mesh in the teeth of the quadrant. When¬ 
ever they do not, report it. 

Q.—What attention should be given by-pass valves? 

A.—They should be reported to be cleaned periodically, in order 
to keep them from getting gummed up and sticky. 

Q.—What would be the effect if a by-pass valve were stuck 
open or stuck shut? 

A.—If stuck open, they will cause the engine to blow. If stuck 
shut, they will cause the engine to pound when drifting. 

Q.—What attention should be given the relief valves on low 
pressure steam chests and cylinders? 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


39 


A.—They should be tested about once a month, in order to see 
that they open at the proper pressure. 

Q.—How would you handle the intercepting valve used in con¬ 
nection with the American type locomotive so far as lubricating 
it, etc., is concerned? 

A.—Give it a liberal feed of oil for about one minute before 
starting, and occasionally during long runs where the throttle is 
not shut off for a considerable length of timd. Except for this, 
one drop of oil about every four or five minutes, when running, 
is ample. 

Q.—Beside the intercepting valve, what other parts of an 
articulated compound locomotive should be oiled that are not 
found on the ordinary locomotive? 

A.—The sliding boiler-bearing on the front engine; the ball 
joint in front of the high pressure cylinder; the upper or rear 
ball joint of the exhaust pipe; the lower or front ball joint of the 
exhaust pipe (these ball joints need only be oiled before starting, 
as one oiling should be sufficient for the trip); the bolt in the 
flexible connection connecting the two engines; the ball bearing 
of the vertical suspension or trim bolts, which connect the upper 
rails of the front frames with the lower rails to the rear frames; 
the ball bearing of the floating columns, if any; the piston rod 
packing of the cylinders of the power reversing gear; the air 
cylinder of the power reversing gear, by means of the plug in the 
top of the cylinder; about once a week will be often enough for 
the air cylinder. 

Q.—What is the arrangement of cylinders on Mallet compound 
engine? 

A.—High pressure cylinders rigidly attached to the boiler and 
rear engine; low pressure cylinders rigidly attached to the frames 
of the forward engine, but not attached to the boiler. 

Q.—Describe the make of valves used on high pressure engines 
and on low pressure engines. 

A.—As a rule, piston valves are used on the high pressure 
engines and “D,” or slide, valves on the low pressure engines. 
(The following questions and answers apply to American type 
engines only except as noted.) 

Q.—Does the engine work simple or compound when first 
started? 

A.—Simple. 

Q.—When does the Mallet engine work compound? 

A.—When the receiver pressure has reached the desired 
amount, which is about four-tenths boiler pressure, thereby closing 
the intercepting valve. 

Q.—When the engine is working compound, what change is 
necessary to make the engine work simple? 

A.—Open the emergency valve in the cab, which causes the 
separate exhaust valve to open. This takes the pressure off the 



40 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


end of the intercepting valve, allowing it to open and live steam 
to pass through the reducing valve direct to the low pressure 
cylinders. 

Q.— : How would you determine if the intercepting valve was 
stuck open? If stuck closed? 

A.—If the intercepting valve was stuck open, the engine could 
not be converted from compound to simple, as, in this case, open¬ 
ing the separate exhaust valve would allow part of the steam from 
the receiver to pass out through the separate exhaust and, conse¬ 
quently, but a small portion would pass to the low pressure 
cylinders and the engine would lose power and, if on a hard pull, 
would probably stall. It might also be noticed by the high pres¬ 
sure engine slipping. 

If the separate exhaust valve was stuck closed, the locomotive 
could not be converted from simple to compound and, unless the 
separate exhaust valve was opened, the pressure would bank up 
in the receiver until it balanced on both sides of the high pressure 
piston, and, in this case, as before, if the engine was on a hard 
pull it would probably stall. You could tell if the intercepting 
valve stuck closed by first opening the separate exhaust valve and 
noticing if the engine picked up speed, then closing the separate 
exhaust valve, by means of the emergency valve in the cab, and 
noting if the speed reduced quickly. 

Q.—Describe how steam is conveyed from high to low pressure 
cylinders. 

A.—As the steam is exhausted from the high pressure cylinders 
it passes on into what is termed the receiver pipe, which connects 
the exhaust chamber of the high pressure valve with the steam 
chamber of the low pressure valve, and when the engine is work¬ 
ing compound the movement of the low pressure valve allows the 
steam from the high pressure cylinders to enter direct into the 
low pressure cylinders. When the engine is working in simple 
position the low pressure engines operate with live steam direct 
from the boiler, while the steam exhausted from the high pressure 
cylinders into the receiver passes by way of the separate exhaust 
valve direct to the nozzle. 

Q.—In starting the locomotive, if the forward engine does not 
take steam, what is the trouble? 

A.—The reducing valve is stuck shut, as, with this type of 
engine, unless the reducing valve is open there would be no steam 
in the low pressure cylinders until after the high pressure 
cylinders have exhausted. 

Q.—What would you do if a by-pass valve was stuck open or 
stuck closed? 

A.—If one of the by-pass valves should stick open it would 
cause a severe blow, and, if it could not be closed in any other 
manner, the cap on the end of the chamber should be removed and 
the valve forced into closed position with the handle of the coal 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


41 


pick. At the same time, while the cap is removed, see that the 
small port at the end of the by-pass valve chamber is open. If the 
valve is stuck shut the engine would not drift freely, and, if 
necessary to do considerable drifting before reaching the end of 
the terminal, it is advisable to take off the valve chamber cap, 
remove the by-pass valve, clean it with coal oil and replace. The 
sticking of the by-pass valves is generally caused by the smoke- 
box gas being sucked into the cylinder, on account of the reverse 
lever being carried too high up when the engine is drifting. The 
reverse lever should always be carried at about three-fourths 
cut-off when the engine is drifting, as this will allow the engine 
to drift more freely and there will be less smoke and gas sucked 
into the cylinder. 

Q.—Describe the course taken by the steam from the time it 
leaves the boiler until it is exhausted from the stack, when start¬ 
ing and when working compound? 

A—Ordinarily, when starting without the separate exhaust 
valve being open, steam, upon opening the throttle, passes from 
the throttle standpipe to the dry pipe and to the steam pipes lead¬ 
ing to the high pressure steam chests, thence, as the high pressure 
valves open and close the steam ports, it passes to the high pres¬ 
sure cylinder and is exhausted into the receiver, from which, by 
the movement of the low pressure valves, it is admitted to, and 
exhausted from, the low pressure cylinder, the exhaust passing 
out through the exhaust nozzle the same as in an ordinary loco¬ 
motive. At the same time, when starting, live steam is admitted 
to the low pressure steam chest through the reducing valve, this 
steam taking the same course into and out of the low pressure 
cylinder as the receiver steam, or exhaust from the high pressure 
cylinder. After the engine has made a few revolutions the ex¬ 
haust steam from the high pressure cylinder will bank up in the 
receiver, causing the reducing valve to close, and thereafter the 
engine will work compound, the steam taking the same course as 
before, with the exception of the live steam passing through the 
reducing valve. If the engine is started with the separate ex¬ 
haust valve open, however, the exhaust from the high pressure 
cylinder, instead of banking up in the receiver, is exhausted direct 
to the exhaust nozzle through the separate exhaust valve, the 
steam used in the low pressure cylinder and admitted through 
the reducing valve taking the same course as before. 

Q.—How are the simple and compound features controlled in 
Mallet engine? 

A.—In the Baldwin type, by means of an emergency valve in 
the cab, which, when opened, allows high pressure steam to flow 
direct from the boiler into the receiver and from the receiver into 
the low pressure cylinders. In the American type, by means of an 
intercepting valve and an emergency valve. When the emergency 
valve is opened it throws the intercepting valve in such a position 



42 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


as to allow high pressure steam to flow from the high pressure 
steam chests direct into the receiver pipe, and from thence to the 
low pressure cylinders. 

Q.—Should the high pressure engine become disabled, how 
would you get the locomotive in? 

A.—By opening the emergency valve in the cab, so as to allow 
high pressure steam to flow to the low pressure engine. 

Q.—Under what conditions should the emergency or starting 
valve be used? 

A.—Only when starting, and to prevent stalling on a heavy 
grade. 

Q.—What are the duties of the intercepting valve? 

A.—To supply steam to the low pressure cylinders when start 
ing, and to cut off the supply when the reservoir pressure has 
reached the desired amount. 


BREAKDOWNS 


In case of any breakdown in which one or more of the cylin¬ 
ders can be disconnected and the locomotive run in with the 
remaining cylinders active, simply throw the emergency operat¬ 
ing valve in the cab into the simple position and proceed as with 
a simple locomotive, namely, disconnect and block the disabled 
cylinder or cylinders. This is the only rule to follow and the 
only one to be remembered, and covers all cases of accidents 
which do not entirely disable the locomotive. 

OPERATING RULES* 


Always open the cylinder cocks in starting. 

Usually the locomotive will start the train when the throttle 
is opened in the ordinary way with the reverse lever in the posi¬ 
tion required for the weight of the train or ordinarily in the 
extreme notch. If the locomotive fails to start the train when 
operated in this way, change it into simple working by turning 
the handle of the emergency operating valve in the cab so that 
it points to the rear. This same course should be followed if the 
engine is about to stall on a heavy grade. If the speed is over 
three or four miles an hour, no increase in power will be obtained 
by changing the locomotive into simple working. 


*The American Locomotive Co. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


43 


When drifting, the reverse lever should be kept at %-stroke 
or more. As before stated, if this is done, the locomotive will 
drift freely. 

The oil cylinder of the power reversing gear should always 
be kept full of oil. The piston and piston rod packing of the oil 
cylinder should be kept in good condition so as to prevent leakage. 
If the reversing gear operates too rapidly it indicates that there 
is not sufficient oil in the oil cylinder and this should be refilled 
and the leakages stopped. 

If the reversing gear is not adjusted properly so that the latch 
of the main reverse lever does not engage with the teeth of the 
quadrant, the trouble should be remedied as soon as possible. If 
not properly adjusted, the locking of the reverse gear will be put 
almost entirely on the latch of the auxiliary lever, which is not 
designed for such duty and would, therefore, quickly wear. 

The by-pass valves should be taken out and cleaned period¬ 
ically to prevent them from being gummed and sticking. When 
the locomotive is first put into service, these valves should be 
cleaned quite frequently for a few times so as to keep them free 
from the core sand which is sure to work into them. Afterwards 
they will require only ordinary attention to work properly. When 
these valves are properly performing their functions, the loco¬ 
motive will drift freely. If they stick open it will^ cause a severe 
blow, while if stuck in the closed position, it will "cause a pound¬ 
ing in the low pressure engines. 

The relief valves in the low pressure steam chests should be 
tested occasionally to see that they are correctly set at 45 per 
cent of the boiler pressure, as these valves relieve any excessive 
pressure in the steam chests. 

Repairs to Flexible Joints. In renewing the packing of the 
flexible joints the same kind of packing should be used as that 
originally applied. Also care should be taken to keep it arranged, 
trouble from leaky joints will be avoided. 

The brass ring of the receiver pipe joint at the high pressure 
cylinder may be removed in order to insert new packing, but the 
original arrangement of the joint packing should always be pre¬ 
served. 

Lubrication. Give the intercepting valve a liberal feed of oil 
for a minute before starting and occasionally during long runs, 
when the throttle is not shut off for a considerable length of time. 
Except for this, one drop of oil to the intercepting valve every 
four or five minutes is ample when running. 

Besides the intercepting valve, the other parts of the articu¬ 
lated compound locomotive which should be oiled, which are not 
found on the ordinary locomotive are: 

Sliding boiler bearings on the front engine. 

The ball joint in front of the high pressure cylinder (before 
starting on a trip). 



44 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


The upper or rear ball joint of the'exhaust pipe ( before start¬ 
ing on a trig). 

The lower or front ball joint of the exhaust pipe (before 
starting on a trip). 

The bolt connecting the two engines. 

The ball bearings of the vertical suspension or “trim” bolts 
which connect the upper rails of the rear frames with the lower 
rails of the front frames. 

The ball bearings of the floating columns (if applied). 

The piston rod packing of the cylinders of the power reversing 
gear. 

The air cylinder of the power reversing gear, by means of the 
plug in the top of the cylinder (about once a week). 

Blows. To test for blows in the valves or pistons, throw the 
emergency operating valve in the cab to the simple position, 
namely, with the handle pointing to the rear. Spot the locomotive 
and test the same as a simple locomotive. 



Triplex Articulated Com¬ 
pound Locomotive 

The Baldwin Locomotive Works has completed for the Erie 
Railroad a locomotive for pusher service, which develops a trac¬ 
tive force of 160,000 pounds and is by far the most powerful 
locomotive yet built. This capacity is secured not by using ex¬ 
cessive wheel loads or a rigid wheel base of unusual length, but 
by placing driving wheels under the tender, and thus making the 
weight of the latter available for adhesion. In heavy grade 
work especially the weight of the tender detracts materially from 
the net hauling capacity of a locomotive of the usual type; while 
in this case the tender is used as a means for increasing hauling 
capacity. 

This locomotive is built in accordance with patents granted to 
George R. Henderson, Consulting Engineer of the Baldwin Loco¬ 
motive Works. The wheel arrangement is 2-8-8-8-2, the third 
group of driving wheels and the rear truck being placed under the 
tender section. The cylinders are all of the same size, two acting 
as high pressure. The two high pressure cylinders drive the 
middle group of. wheels. The right-hand high pressure cylinder 
exhausts into the two front cylinders, and the left-hand high 
pressure cylinder exhausts into the two rear cylinders. This 
arrangement is therefore equivalent to a compound engine, hav¬ 
ing a ratio of cylinder volumes of one to two. The boiler has a 
conical connection in the middle of the barrel, and is fitted with 
the Gaines type of furnace. The fire-box has a total length of 
13 feet 6 inches, and of this the grates occupy 10 feet. A com¬ 
bustion chamber 54 inches long extends forward into the boiler 
barrel and the tubes have a length of 24 feet. The brick arch is 
supported on six 3%-inch tubes; and heated air is delivered under 
the arch by seven 3-inch pipes which are placed vertically in the 
bridge wall. There are two fire doors, placed 32% inches between 
centers; and a Street mechanical stoker is applied. The barrel 
of this boiler measures 94 inches in diameter at the front end 
ana 102% inches at the dome ring. The center line is placed 
10 feet 7 inches above the rail. The circumferential seams have 
sextuple riveted butt joints, which are welded at the ends, and 
have an efficiency equal to 90 per cent of the solid plate. The 
dome is of pressed steel, 33 inches in diameter and 13 inches 
high. It contains a Chambers throttle, which is connected with 
the superheated header, in the usual manner by an internal dry 
pipe. The superheater is composed of 53 elements, and is the 
largest ever applied to a locomotive; the superheating surface 


46 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


being 1,584 square feet, the header is divided, separate casings 
being used for saturated and superheated steam sections. The 
front end contains a single exhaust nozzle with ring blower. 

The size of the nozzle can be varied by a simple adjustment 
device placed outside the smoke-box. The stack is 22 inches in 
diameter, and it has an internal section which extends down to 
the center line of the boiler. 

The superheated steam is conveyed to the high pressure 
cylinder through outside pipes, and the high pressure distribu¬ 
tion is controlled by 16-inch piston valves, arranged for inside 
admission, similar valves are applied to the low pressure cylin¬ 
ders. These valves are all driven by Baker Valve Gear, and the 
three sets of motions are controlled simultaneously by the Ragon- 
net power reverse mechanism. 

All six cylinders are cast from the same pattern, and the valve 
motion and driving gear details used with the three groups of 
wheels are as far as possible interchangeable. A large number 
of these details also interchange with those of the Mikado type 
docomotives in service on this road. 

Among the details of the driving gear may be mentioned the 
pistons, all six of which are alike. The piston heads are steel 
forgings of the dished shape; and each is surrounded by a cast 
iron bull ring. The bull ring carries three packing rings and is 
secured to the piston head by a retaining ring which is elec¬ 
trically welded. The packing rings, both for the cylinders and 
valve chambers are of Hunt-Spiller Metal. 

The efficiency of a locomotive used in slow, heavy service is 
largely proportional to the percentage of total weight available 
for adhesion. In this respect the Triplex excels all previous 
designs, having 89 per cent of the total weight of the Engine and 
the tender on the drivers. In large Mallets of the 2-8-8-2 type 
this ratio is not above 65 per cent. 




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134 


48 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 














































































The Pyle-National Electric 
Headlight 


NAMES AND NUMBERS OF 

11 Exhaust Screen. 

12 % Armature Spider. 

13 Commutator Ring. 

15 Commutator Nut. 

16 Outside Washer. 

28 Binding Post, large hole 
with Nut. 

28*4 Binding Post Nut. 

29 Binding Post, small hole 
with Nut. 

29A Incandescent Terminal. 

45 Armature Lock Screw. 

45A Small Lock Screw. 

68 Binding Post Screw. 

97 Insulation Washers. 

97A Small Fibre Washer. 

97B Brush Holder Iron 
Washer. 

97% Fibre Bushing. 

111 Binding Screw. 

111A Shunt Field Connecting 
Screw. 

112 Field Screw. 

115 Bushing. 

124A Shaft Pin. 

129 Mica Taper Ring. 

129A Mica Band Ring. 

130 Winding Ring. 

140 Top Brush Holder. 

141 Bottom Brush Holder. 

142 Brush Spring. 

143 Brush Spring Adjuster. 

144 Brush Adjuster Screw. 

145 Brush Holder Screw. 

146 Top Brush Holder, com¬ 
plete. 

147 Bottom Brush Holder, 
complete. 

155 Armature. 


PARTS, EQUIPMENT “E” 

162 Commutator, complete. 
503 Ball Bearing. 

600 Turbine, complete. 

601 Turbine Casing. 

602 Turbine Wheel. 

603 Turbine Cover. 

604 Turbine Cover Cap. 

606A Armature Sleeve. 

607 Rear Field Frame. 

607A Front Field Frame. 

609A Ball Bearing Cap. 

611A Valve Cage. 

612A Valve Seat. 

613A Valve Cap. 

614 Dynamo Door. 

614A Dynamo Name Plate. 
614B Dynamo Door Pin. 

614C Dynamo Door Latch. 
615A Valve Adjusting Nut. 
616A Governor Valve Spring. 

617 Governor Adjusting 
Screw. 

618 Valve Lock Nut. 

619 Oil Cup. 

619A Oil Cup Cover. 

620A Turbine Case Bushing. 
621A Packing Gland. 

622 Governor Link Screw. 

624 Shaft. 

624A Wheel Retaining Nut. 

625 Wheel Retaining Washer 
627 Nozzle Screw. 

630 Anti-Friction Ring. 
Holder Screw. 

631 Governor Weight. 

632 Governor Arm Screw. 
633A Oil Cup, complete. 

634 Governor Link with 

Roller. 


50 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


THE PYLE-NATIONAL ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT 
NAMES AND NUMBERS OF PARTS, EQUIPMENT “E”-Continued 


634A Governor Link Roller. 

635 Guide Passage Plate. 
635A Steam Nozzle. 

636 Governor Arm. 

637 Governor Sleeve. 

638A Governor Valve. 

639 Anti-Friction Ring 

Holder. 

641 Governor Spring. 

642 Governor Yoke. 

646 Field Frame Screw. 

647 Turbine Screw. 


647A Ball Bearing Cap Screw. 

648 Turbine Bearing, com¬ 
plete. 

649 Oil Ring. 

650 Governor Valve and Cage, 
complete. 

651 Dynamo Field Coil, com¬ 
plete. 

652 Shunt Field Coil. 

653 Series Field Coil. 

660 Nozzle and Guide Pas¬ 

sages, complete. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


51 


THE PYLE-NATIONAL ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT 
NAMES AND NUMBERS OF PARTS, HEAD LAMP “D” 


28 Binding Post, large hole. 
28A Washer 5-16. 

29 Binding Post, small hole. 

40 Reflector Clamp, bottom. 
40% Reflector Clamp, top. 

41 Reflector Support. 

44 Carbon Clutch. 

49 Extension Lamp Base. 
50% Lamp Base. 

51% Lamp Column. 

52 Large Bottom Clamp. 

53 Small Bottom Clamp. 

54 Hand Nut. 

55 Hand Nut Washer. 

57 Top Bracket. 

58 Tension Spring Screw. 
58% Tension Spring Screw 

Nut. 

59 Top Lever. 

60 Small Lever. 

61 Dash Pot, complete. 

62 Insulating Link. 

63 Solenoid Plunger Con¬ 
necting Link. 

63% Solenoid Plunger Yoke 
Link. 

64 Solenoid Plunger. 

64A Link connecting Nos. 64 
and 90. 

65 Solenoid. 

67 Top Positive Conductor. 
67% Beaded Conductor. 

67%A Screw for Beaded Con¬ 
ductor. 

68 Binding Post Screw. 

69 Top Lever Screw. 

74 Set Screw. 

78A Clutch Weight. 

78B Clutch Weight Rod. 

79 Thumb Nut. 

79A Chain and Link. 

81B Thumb Screw. 

87 Carbon Clamp, male. 

88 Carbon Clamp, female. 


88A Contact Brushes, set. 

90 Solenoid Plunger Yoke. 

90A Solenoid Yoke Pivot Pin. 

90C Solenoid Yoke Cotter Pin. 

90C Spring Cotter. 

91 Carbon Holder Spring. 

92A Clutch Spring. 

93 Tension Spring. 

93A Tension Spring Screw 
and Thumb Nut, com¬ 
plete. 

96 Bottom Clamp Insulation. 

96% Top Bracket Insulation. 

97 Insulating Washers 
(large). 

97A Insulating Washers 
(small). 

97% Insulating Bushing. 

98 Vertical Adjusting Screw. 

99 Vertical Adjusting Screw 
Nut. 

100 Top Carbon Holder Slide. 

100A Top Carbon Holder Stud. 

100C Washer. 

102 Clutch Foot. 

106A Lower Electrode Holder 
Shank. 

106B Lower Electrode Clamp. 

106C Electrode Holder Pin. 

109A Lower Electrode. 

112A No. 6 Tinned Iron Burrs. 

115 Insulating Bushing. 

120 Solenoid Screw. 

121 Reflector Clamp Screw. 

122 Clutch Weight Shoulder 
Screw. 

132 Reflector Support, com¬ 
plete. 

145A No. 3 Tinned Iron Burrs. 

200A Lower Electrode Holder, 
complete. 

300 Upper Carbon Electrode 
Holder, complete. 



52 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



to-- - - . . U 

49 

Head Lamp “D,” Pyle-National Electric Headlight. 















































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


53 


THE PYLE-NATIONAL ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT 
NAMES AND NUMBERS OF PARTS, HEAD LAMP “D”—Continued 


MISCELLANEOUS SCREWS. 


207 

Connecting- 

Nos. 

67 

and 

212 

Connecting Nos. 61 and 


57. 





90. 

208 

Connecting 

Nos. 

57 

and 

215 

Connecting Nos. 88A and 


51%. 





88. 

209 

Connecting 

Nos. 

60 

and 

157 

Lamp, complete. 


51%. 




197 

Bottom Clamp, complete. 

210 

Connecting 

Nos. 

90 

and 

199 

Carbon Contact Holder, 


51%. 





complete, comprising Nos. 

211 

Connecting 

65. 

Nos. 

61B and 


87, 88, 91. 


TO FOCUS LAMP 

First.—Adjust back of reflector so front will be parallel with 
front edge of case. 

Second.—Adjust lamp to have point of copper electrode as 
near center of reflector as possible. 

Third.—Have carbon as near center of chimney hole in re¬ 
flector as possible. 

Fourth.—Have engine on straight track and move lamp until 
you get best results on track. The light should be reflected in 
parallel rays and in as small a space as possible. 

To lower light on track, raise lamp. 

To raise light on track, lower lamp. 

If your light throws any shadows it is not focused properly. 

If light is focused properly and does not then strike center of 
track do not change focus, but shift entire case on base board. 
Point of copper electrode should be about one inch above top of 
holder. If it is higher than this, there will be too much heat on 
clutch. 



54 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
ON THE PYLE-NATIONAL 
ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT 


Q.—What is an electric headlight? 

A.—A device applied to the front of a locomotive and used 
to illuminate the track by means of a light produced by a current 
of electricity. 

Q.—What principal parts comprise the Pyle-National Electric 
headlight? 

A.—The turbine engine, the dynamo and the arc lamp. 

Q.—What are the duties of the turbine engine? 

A.—The turbine engine furnishes the mechanical power that 
operates the dynamo, the latter producing the light. 

Q.—What are the principal parts of the dynamo? 

A.—The armature, the commutator (which is attached to the 
armature shaft), the two field magnets and the pole pieces. 

Q.—What are the duties of the armature? 

A.—The armature induces an electromotive force in the copper 
wires wound upon it, and concentrates and directs the flow of 
current. 

Q.—What is the function of the commutator? 

A.—The function of the commutator is to collect the currents 
produced by the armature wires and cause them all to concur to 
a desired result. 

Q.—At what point is the commutator attached to the armature? 

A.—The commutator is attached to the end of the armature 
shaft in such a manner as to rotate with it. 

Q.—Give the formation of the commutator? 

A.—The commutator is composed of copper bars, to which the 
armature wires are attached at one end. These copper bars are 
separated from each other by pieces of mica, which is a noncon¬ 
ducting material. 

Q.—What is the duty of the field coils or magnets? 

A.—To produce a magnetic field, in which the armature 
revolves. 

Q.—Define the pole pieces and give their requirements? 

A.—The end portion of the field magnet are called the pole 
pieces; they form the armature chamber in which the armature 
revolves. 

Q.—Give the first three measurements of electricity? 

A.—The volt, the ampere and the ohm. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


55 


Q.—Define the volt. 

A.—The practical unit of measurement of electrical pressure 
is the volt. 

Q.—Define the ampere. 

A.—The practical unit of measurement of the rate of flow of 
current is the ampere. 

Q.—Define the ohm. 

A.—The practical unit of measurement of electrical resistance 
is the ohm; a resistance that would limit the flow of electricity 
under an electro-motive force of one volt to a current of one 
ampere. 

Q.—What produces the electro-motive force, or voltage? 

A.—The electro-motive force, or voltage, is produced in the 
armature wires by the armature revolving in its chamber at a 
very high rate of speed. 

Q.—What causes the electrical pressure, or voltage, to become 
too high? 

A.—By increasing the speed of the armature beyond the point 
desired. 

Q.—Then the speed at which the armature revolves determines 
the amount of voltage produced? 

A.—Yes. 

Q.—Should the electrical pressure become too great, what 
would result? 

A.—If the electrical pressure, or voltage, becomes too high, 
the wires conducting the current will be heated so hot that the 
insulation wound upon them will become charred. 

Q.—When the insulation on the wires becomes charred, does 
it lose its virtue? 

A.—Yes. When the material covering the wires becomes 
charred, it is no longer a good insulator, and the current will leak 
through from layer to layer of the coils. 

Q.—What is this called? 

A.—A burned out coil. 

Q.—Does the volt represent any electricity? 

A.—It does not. It represents only the pressure that acts upon 
the electricity. 

Q.—What effect has the volt upon a current of electricity? 

A.—It forces a quantity of current to flow through the wires 
at a. certain rate per second. 

Q.—How is this rate of flow measured? 

A.—In amperes. 

Q.—What is meant by a short circuit? 

A.—A short circuit is a passage offered whereby a quantity 
of current of electricity may flow with less resistance than is 
offered by its passage to points desired, such as lamps, etc. 

Q.—What is the cause for most of the short circuits found in 
this device? 




56 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Distorted insulation of wires, brought about by chafing. 

Q.—What style of governor is used? 

A.—A centrifugal governor. 

Q.—Is there any other means employed within this turbine 
to prevent the speed attaining a velocity beyond the point desired? 

A.—Yes. There is a centrifugal brake applied to the turbine 
wheel and set so that it will act at about 150 revolutions higher 
speed than the point at which the governor is set to act. 

Q.—Why is this centrifugal brake not adjusted so that it will 
act at the same speed as the governor? 

A.—There are two reasons why the brake is not set so that it 
will act in conjunction with the governor. First, the brake will 
not act as quick as the governor weights, and would therefore 
interfere seriously with the speed at the critical time. Second, it 
was designed and applied to prevent any possibility of the turbine 
wheel running away and being thrown to pieces by centrifugal 
force at times when the governor plungers have been neglected. 

Q.—How many governor weights are there in this device? 

A.—Four in number. 

Q.—How many sets of governor springs are used and what 
is their duty? 

A.—There are four sets of governor springs used, and their 
duty is to offer the proper amount of resistance to the movement 
of the governor weights and to cause them to act quickly. 

Q.—How many governor valves, and where are they located? 

A.—There are two governor valves, and they are placed within 
the governor stands. 

Q.—If governor is set so that the plungers are seated when the 
governor weights are drawn at right angle position to face of 
turbine wheel, will it become necessary to change them again; 
and why? 

A.—The action and position of the governor plungers are de¬ 
termined by the position of the governor weights, the latter’s 
position being determined by the speed at which the turbine 
wheel revolves. If the plungers are set so that they are carried 
to seat of steam supply when weights are thrown to point of least 
resistance, it will be found when the plunger valves have worn 
so they must be faced off, that they will not seat when these 
governor weights are drawn to position stated above, and it will 
now be necessary to bend the ends of the crossarm until the 
plungers will seat. 

Q.—When it is found that the governor weights will over¬ 
travel, that is, may be drawn beyond a position that is at right 
angles to face of turbine wheel before the plunger valves may be 
seated, in which direction must the ends of crossarm be bent to 
cause plunger valves to seat firmly when governor weights are 
drawn to critical service position? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


57 


A.—The ends of crossarm must be sprung out—away from the 
wheel—until the valves will seat firmly when weights are drawn 
to position stated above. 

Q.—How should this work he done so that both plunger valves 
may have the same travel? 

A.—Pull governor weights until they stand straight out from 
face of turbine wheel, hold in this position with one hand, place 
rule or scale on top of governor stand, move plunger into seat— 
and out, and note amount of travel shown. The ends of crossarm 
must be bent hack away from face of wheel half the distance of 
measurement shown to insure the correct travel to both plungers. 

Q.—How often should the governor plungers be examined to 
insure ideal service? 

A.—The governor plungers should be examined by a competent 
inspector once each month. 

Q.—Should a record be kept of such inspection? 

A.—Yes. 

Q.—When the governor has been properly set, how long will 
this device run before the plunger valves may need facing? 

A.—At least six months. 

Q.—Why then is it necessary to remove the engine cap and 
examine these plunger valves once each month? 

• A.—This governor being of the centrifugal form is set so that 
it will act at the maximum speed it is desired this engine shall 
attain, which is at point of maximum output of dynamo desired. 
Oftentimes the locomotive boiler may foam, or the engineer get 
a little too much water in boiler; some of this water is sure to 
pass through the turbine engine and would have a tendency to 
cause the plunger valves to stick. If they should stick open, 
the copper electrode and holder might be destroyed, hence the 
necessity of the monthly inspection. 

Q.—Is it not possible to ascertain whether the plunger valves 
are stuck or not without removing the engine cap? 

A.—No, not in all cases, though if one of the valves is stuck 
“wide open,” or “entirely shut,” it can be determined by taking 
the speed with the load on, then with turbine running without the 
load. 

Q.—If one of the plungers is stuck “shut,” how can it be 
determined by the speed recorder? 

A.—If the governor has been handling the load, that is, if the 
latter has been set on a wide-open throttle, when one plunger is 
stuck shut, the speed will he very low with light burning, but 
when load is taken off speed will go up to usual maximum speed. 

Q.—How may it he known if plunger should stick “open?” 

A.—Should the governor plunger stick open, the copper elec¬ 
trode will be fused almost instantly, and when the load is taken 
off the speed of turbine will become very great. A constant and 
heavy flow of steam out of the exhaust pipe can also be noted. 



58 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—What lubricates the centerpiece and face of crossarm? 

A.—The “graphite” ring. 

Q.—Describe this ring and its location. 

A.—The ring known as the graphite ring is a flat bronze ring 
that is drilled full of holes and these holes are filled with graphite. 
This ring is held in a small recess in the centerpiece by the cross- 
arm. 

Q.—How often do these rings have to be renewed? 

A.—There is no actual time limit to the life and wear of these 
rings. They wear indefinitely. 

Q.—How can the speed of the turbine and dynamo be increased 
when all ports are normal? 

A.—The speed of this device can be increased by moving all 
of the governor spring adjusting screws to the right. 

Q.—How may the speed be reduced? 

A.—By moving all governor spring adjusting screws to the left. 

Q.—To increase the speed of dynamo 100 revolutions per 
minute, how far should the screws be turned? 

A.—To increase speed of dynamo 100 revolutions per minute, 
all of the adjusting screws must be moved one-half turn to the 
right. 

Q.—To decrease the speed? 

A.—One-half turn to the left. 

Q.—Is there any reason why the adjustment of the governor 
spring screws will not cause the engine to respond to the speed 
desired at all times? 

A.—Yes, there are several things that will, at certain times, 
prevent the regulating of speed by movement of the adjusting 
screws. 

Q.—Give one cause that will interfere with this regulating of 
speed with adjusting screws. 

A.—When bushing in engine cap becomes worn from lack of 
lubrication. It will also be found that the edge of the bottom 
governor stand has been worn off by the turbine wheel, which has 
slowly dropped down by this bushing w^ear until it came in con¬ 
tact with the governor stand. In a short time the space between 
the governor stands and turbine wheel will be increased until the 
steam will not have to pass through the turbine wheel to gain 
the atmosphere, but can pass around on either side of wheel to 
the exhaust. In this case adjustment of regulating screws could 
not be effective. 

Q.—Is there another cause why adjustment of regulating 
screws will not be effective? 

A.—Yes. If the bearings are not properly lubricated and the 
end thrust maintained too close. Since the steam is directed 
against the buckets of the wheel by the governor stands, the latter 
suspended to the main casting; in a short time the flange of 
bushings and the cast iron washer in engine will be worn so badly 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


59 


that the turbine wheel will be carried out and away from the 
main casting and governor stand, when now a considerable amount 
of steam will pass around to back side of turbine wheel to the 
exhaust instead of passing through wheel. 

Q.—Can you give another cause that might occur wherein the 
adjustment or the governor spring screws would not be effective? 

A.—If one of the plunger valves should stick either closed or 
open, it would be impossible to regulate speed as desired while in 
such condition. 

Q.—What should always be done just before engine cap is 
removed? 

A.—The end thrust should always be adjusted to 1-32 of an 
inch before the engine cap is removed. 

Q.—Why? 

A.—If it is found that some changes are necessary in governor, 
such as changing crossarm, etc., unless the end thrust is adjusted 
before such changes are made, there is great danger that the 
travel of the plunger valves might be cut off, perhaps entirely 
closed. 

Q.—How is adjustment of end thrust made? 

A.—When facing the dynamo by first loosening screws in the 
end-thrust casting, then tapping same on left side will take up 
end movement, and by tapping on right side will increase end 
movement. 

Q.—When it is found that the turbine wheel has been carried 
too far away from the governor stands (due to end-thrust move¬ 
ment), to direct the steam against the center of the bucket in 
wheel, what is the cure? 

A.—It will require a new bushing in engine cap and a new 
cast iron washer. 

Q.—If there are no new parts at hand to make repairs what 
may be done? 

A.—If no ne'w parts are at hand temporary repairs can be 
made in this way: First loosen screws in end-thrust casting and 
move the latter to the right, then move the wheel towards the 
main casting as far as it will go; now place a metallic washer of 
some kind between the flange of bushing in engine cap and the 
cast iron washer, being careful that this washer is only of 
sufficient thickness to take up the lost motion between the flange 
of bushing and cast iron washer. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PERTAINING TO THE CARE OF 
THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT IN GENERAL 

Q.—How would you inspect an electric headlight equipment 
before going out? How should the light be started? 

A.—See that the commutator is clean, that the brushes are 
properly adjusted, that all screws are tight, that the point of the 



60 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


copper electrode is clean and the proper distance above the holder, 
that the headlight is properly fitted with carbon which will fall 
freely through the holder, and that the oil wells are properly filled 
before starting the engine; see that the casing is properly drained, 
and then turn on a little steam so as to allow time for condensa¬ 
tion to get out of the engine, after which steam can be turned on 
full. The headlight should always be started slowly. 

Q.—How can you tell when the turbine is running too fast? 

A.—By the light burning green. 

Q.—Can you tell when the governors are not working properly, 
and have you any way to test governors before engine leaves the 
terminal? 

A.—Yes, you can tell by the manner in which the light burns, 
as, for instance, if upon giving the turbine a full head of steam 
your light burns green, you will know the engine is running too 
fast. If the light burns dim, it is not running fast enough. The 
speed of the governor in a Pyle-National Electric headlight can 
be regulated by turning the adjusting screws, to the left if run¬ 
ning too fast, and to the right if running too slow, being careful 
to adjust all screws the same as near as possible; one-half turn 
of these screws will change the speed about one hundred revolu¬ 
tions per minute. On a Schroeder headlight the speed is regulated 
by adjusting the governor tenison spring, which is done by means 
of a nut on the end of the spring; turning the nut clockwise, that 
is, to the right, tightens this spring and increases the speed, while 
turning it to the left reduces the speed; one-quarter of a turn on 
this nut in either direction will make a marked difference in the 
speed. 

Q.—What kind of oil should be used for dynamo and turbine 
bearings, and why? 

A.—For the bearings use valve oil, except in extremely cold 
weather, when engine oil can be used. This because, owing to 
the high speed at which the turbine runs, if engine oil is used in 
warm weather the bearing may run hot, while if valve oil is used 
in cold weather the oil may become too thick to feed. There is a 
plug in the top of the engine for the purpose of introducing oil to 
cut away any lime or scale that may have formed about the 
governor plungers! Engine oil or coal oil should be used for this 
purpose, as it is not necessary to lubricate the governor plungers 
to prevent any frictional wear, but simply to cut away the scale. 
This should be done each trip before starting out. 

Q.—Do you ever put oil in hole at top of the turbine, and for 
what purpose? 

A.—Yes, engine oil should be put in each trip for the purpose 
of cutting out the scale or sediment that may have formed around 
the governor plungers. 

Q.—How can you tell when the main bushing is worn? 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


61 


A—By the brushes sparking, wearing out rapidly and the 
headlight not throwing a steady light but flickering. 

Q- —What effect does a worn-out bushing have on the working 
of a lamp? 

A.—The lamp does not burn steadily but the light flickers. 

Q.—When the dynamo sparks, and small pin-point sparks 
runs around commutator, what is it an indication of? How would 
you remedy it? 

A.—It is due to the carbon brushes not being adjusted properly 
or having a poor contact on the commutator. It is usually an 
indication that the tension springs are too loose, and can be 
remedied by increasing the tension. A little judgment must be 
used in this case, however, for if the brushes are not in proper 
condition, or if the commutator is not smooth and true, there will 
be sparking at the brushes regardless of how much pressure is 
used; therefore, before adjusting the tension springs see if the 
commutator is clean and runs true. 

Q.—If the dynamo sparks badly and commutator is blistered 
and rough, and by pressing hand on the brushes the sparking 
becomes less, what is indicated and how could it be remedied. 

A.—This usually is an indication that the commutator is 
getting out of round and requires truing up. Where it is not too 
much out of round or too rough, it can be trued up by removing 
the brushes and holding a strip of No. 0 sandpaper, about the 
width of the brushes, by the ends of the commutator while the 
same is running. After the commutator has been smoothed up, 
file the mica strips between the copper strips down a trifle below 
the surface of the copper, being careful not to get them too low, 
as this would allow them to collect dirt, etc., and cause a short 
circuit. If the commutator is very rough or out of round it 
should be trued up in a lathe and the tool used should be very 
sharp and very light cuts taken, then polish it with fine sand¬ 
paper, examining it carefully to see that no two sections of the 
copper touch. In fact, it is better after the commutator has been 
trued up to polish and cut or file the mica between each section 
a little below the surface, as it does not wear away as rapidly 
as the copper, and if the mica is not cut away it may lead to 
sparking. After doing this be sure that no ragged edges of the 
copper stick up, as this*will cut away the brushes rapidly. 

Q.—When the brushes spark badly in one place and pressing 
down on brushes does not help matters, and on shutting off the 
machine the mica between two bars is found to be burned and 
copper bars burned also, how could this be remedied? 

A.—This is an indication of a short circuit at that particular 
point, caused either by dirt or by the coppers coming in contact; 
to remedy it, clean out the slot where the mica strip fits between 
the two copper bars, and if any copper has been dragged over from 
one bar to the other file away. 



62 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—What damage is a worn bushing likely to cause to the 
dynamo? 

A.—It is liable to injure the armature by allowing it to-come 
in contact with the field coils. 

Q.—When the lamp goes out while the engine is running and 
burns O. K. while engine is standing what is the indication? 

A.—It is due to the tension spring number 93 in the Pyle- 
National headlight being adjusted too tight, which prevents the 
solenoid from separating the carbon sufficiently to form a proper 
arc, or the carbon clutch spring 92A in the Pyle-National head¬ 
light being too loose, allowing the back edge of the clutch to be 
jarred up and release the carbon. On the Schroeder headlight 
it is an indication that the clutch spring is too weak. 

Q.—When the wires are wrongly connected at either dynamo 
or lamp, what occurs when the light is started? 

A.—It will cause a short circuit and put the light out. When 
this occurs the dynamo will be generating a heavy current, the 
speed will be quite low and there will be but a small light at 
the lamp, or else the light will burn green. When this occurs the 
dynamo should be stopped at once, the trouble located and 
remedied. 

Q.—If the lamp goes out when turbine is running and the 
carbon is found to be held off the electrode, what is wrong? 

A.—It is generally due to the tension spring 93 in the Pyle 
light being very loose, so that the magnet is drawn down too far. 
It may also be due to a deposit of scale on the point of the 
copper electrode, which prevents the top carbon touching the 
copper. 

Q.—When the light flashes badly and the bars of the com¬ 
mutator have a reddish color resembling copper after having 
been heated, what is indicated? 

A.—It would indicate that the tension spring is so tight that 
the magnet is unable to separate the carbons, giving a poor light, 
and if run too long in this condition it will result in burning out 
the armature or the fields, owing to the heavy current generated. 

Q.—When a carbon is put in, what precautions should be taken 
to be sure that it will work satisfactorily? 

A.—After putting in a new carbon always push down on lever 
90 Pyle light, and notice if the carbon lifts and falls freely. If it 
does not fall down freely, turn it partially around and find the 
freest place, as these carbons are moulded and sometimes there 
is a little more stock at one point than the other, and when very 
rough it is advisable to smooth them up so as to insure their 
feeding properly. 

Q.—After copper electrodes have been in service for some time 
what often happens to them to affect the light, and how remedied? 

A.—A crust is frequently formed on the end of the copper 
electrode which prevents the current from passing through it, 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


63 


consequently the light fails. This is remedied by removing the 
crust. 

Q.—How should a copper electrode be sharpened? Why? 

A.—Remove it, put it in a vise and sharpen or point it with 
a file. It should be kept pointed in order to insure better contact 
with the carbon. 

Q.—What effect does the burning off of the copper electrode, 
or filing it off, have on the lamp? 

A.—It has the same effect as lowering the lamp, in that it 
raises the light on the track. 

Q.—If the light moves from one side of the track to the other 
and would not remain focused for any length of time, what would 
you look for? 

A.—Look for a loose hand nut at the bottom which secures the 
foot or stand to the lamp base. 

Q.—If the copper electrode and clutch melted, how should the 
lamp be fixed so as to have a light without delaying the train? 

A.—Remove the electrode from the bracket and substitute an 
iron bolt, securing the same in the bracket where electrode 
holders were removed; be sure that the end of the bolt comes up 
in the center of the reflector. This bolt will fuse slowly, but it 
will give you a good light. An ordinary carbon can also be used 
in such emergencies but it will burn away faster, 'which would 
necessitate its being moved up quite frequently. 





Nathan Three-Feed Type 
Bull’s-Eye Lubricator 


BULL’S-EYE LUBRICATOR TYPE m |66-F-3" 



NAME OF PARTS 


1 

Condenser. 

17 

Equalizing Pipe 

2 

Filling Plug. 

18 

Oil Pipe. 

3 

Hand Oiler. 

19 

Water Pipe. 

5 

Reducing Plug. 

20 

Sight Feed Drain Valve. 

6 

Delivery Nut and Tailpiece. 

21 

Reserve Glass and Casing. 

7 

Water Valve. 

22 

Cleaning Plug (Body). 

8 

Stud Nut 

23 

Body Plug. 

9 

Sight Feed Glass and 

24 

Oil Pipe Plug. 


Casing. 

28 

Gauge Glass Bracket. 

9a 

Feed Nozzle. 

29 

Cleaning Plug (Gauge 

11 

Body. 


Glass). 

13 

Gauge Glass and Casing. 

30 

Gauge Glass Cap. 

14 

Waste Cock. 

51 

Plug for Filling Hole. 

15 

Regulating Valve. 

75 

Removable Seat for Filling 

16 

Top Connection. 


Plug. 


SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS 

The lubricator is provided with two filling plugs, one near each 
end of the lubricator, so that either one may be used as is found 
most convenient. The filling plugs do not seat on the body, but 
on removable bushings. In case the seats on the bushings wear 
out only the bushings need replacement. These bushings are 
provided with left-hand threads in the body. 





























ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


65 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION 

The body of the lubricator 11 is made of one single cylindrical 
casting, with the sight feeds 9 and the regulating valves 15 located 
at the bottom of the lubricator, all being in one casting. An oil 
pipe 18 extends from the oil channel connecting with the regulat¬ 
ing valves nearly to the top of the reservoir, and supplies the 
oil to each of the regulating valves as long as there is any 
oil in the reservoir. The water pipe 19 extends from the water 
valve 7 to the bottom of the oil chamber, so that when the 
water valve is open, water from the condenser passes freely into 
the oil chamber and transmits to the oil the pressure due to the 
head of water in the condenser. 

The condenser 1 is kept filled with water up to the top of 
the equalizing pipes 17 which are contained in the condenser, by 
the condensation of steam from the boiler. Any excess of water 
passes down these tubes with the live steam. These equalizing 
pipes are screwed into the passages connecting with the outlets 
from the lubricator and supply live steam to these passages, 
which keeps them full of condensed water up to the level of the 
reducing or choke plugs 5, from which point the excess of water, 
oil and steam leaves the lubricator to pass through the oil pipes 
to the steam chest and cylinders. This supply of steam from the 
equalizing pipes also balances the steam pressure on the water in 
the condenser and on the water in the sight feed and outlet pas¬ 
sages, and the duty of the choke plugs is to restrict the flow of 
steam from these passages so that the steam pressure back of the 
choke plugs is equalized with that in the condenser, whether the 
engine is working steam at full boiler pressure or whether steam 
is shut off. 

Three openings are provided to clean out the oil passages to 
the regulating valves, which openings are covered by the plugs 
22 at the ends of the oil channel, and plug 24 underneath the oil 
pipe 18. 

Hand oilers 3 are provided, one for each oil pipe leading to the 
cylinder or steam chest, which hand oilers are provided with 
spring covers to keep out foreign matter. 

The steam chest oil plug is not furnished- with the lubricator, 
for any standard plug of this character is adaptable. It must 
be provided at its lower end with a bore of not less than 3-32" or 
more than y 8 " in diameter. This is absolutely necessary for the 
proper function of the lubricator. 




66 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


OPERATION 

The lubricator is first filled with clean strained oil through 
the filling plug 2, and when the oil chamber is full, the plug is 
replaced and the water valve 7 opened immediately, irrespective 
of whether or not the lubricator feeds are started. This opening 
of the water valve immediately after the cup is filled is very im¬ 
portant in order to prevent the bursting of the oil chamber 
through the force of expansion of the oil as it becomes heated. 
The steam valve of the lubricator is then opened, which operation 
fills the sight feed chambers with water. The lubricator may then 
be started feeding by opening the regulating valves 15 more or 
less, according to the feed desired. 

To renew the supply of oil after it has been fed from the 
lubricator, first the regulating valves, then the water valve is 
closed. If the water valve is tight, then it is not necessary to 
close the steam valve at the boiler. The drain cock 14 is then 
opened and the water removed from the reservoir, after which 
the filling plug is opened. When the water is entirely out of the 
cup, the drain cock is closed and the reservoir filled with oil, after 
which the filling plug is replaced and the water valve opened 
immediately. 

To use the hand oilers, which should be done only when the 
engine is running on a down grade with the throttle closed, steam 
is shut off from the lubricator by closing the steam valve at the 
boiler, then the valve of the hand oiler is opened, the cover turned 
to one side and the oil poured in. When the oil has run out of 
the hand oiler, the valve of the same is closed and the steam 
turned on from the boiler to the lubricator. This at once carries 
the oil to the steam chest. 

The steam valve at the boiler should always be opened before 
the engine begins to work, whether the feeds are started or not, 
and should be kept open as long as the engine is doing service of 
any kind, whether steaming or drifting, unless using the hand 
oilers as described before. 

The water valve should be open at all times except when filling 
the cup as described. 

In making the steam connection from the boiler to the lubri¬ 
cator, the valve should connect at a point where dry steam can 
be obtained, since when water gets from the boiler into the 
lubricator it interferes with its proper performance, and muddy 
water soon cuts the valves and their seats, causing leaks. The 
type of steam valve as represented in the illustration is provided 
with a pipe ring 32, to which the dry pipe may be attached, 
leading from the point on the boiler where the valve is attached 
to a point inside of the boiler above the highest water level. 



Nathan Simplex Injector 
Type “R” 

DESCRIPTION 

This type of injector meets the most severe requirements of 
modern locomotive practice. It is simply constructed and con¬ 
tains only a few operating parts. It is self-regulating, that is, 
after being started at the highest operating pressure, the latter 
may drop down to about forty pounds before there is any waste 
at the overflow. It is also restarting, that is, if from any cause 
the supply of water should be temporarily interrupted, the in¬ 
jector restarts automatically as soon as the water supply is re¬ 
stored. The reducing capacity is 50 per cent of the maximum 
capacity under ordinary variations of lift and feed water tem¬ 
peratures. 

The action is as follows: Steam from the boiler is admitted 
to the lifting nozzle 22 by drawing out the starting lever 4 slightly, 
and without withdrawing the plug on the end of the steam spindle 
11 from the steam nozzle 21. Steam then passes through the 
small openings around the steam nozzle, and discharges into the 
overflow chamber, lifts the heater cock check 26, and issues from 
the overflow nozzle 34 to which the overflow pipe is attached. 

When water appears at the overflow, the lever 4 is drawn back 
as far as it will go, which opens the steam nozzle 21 and allows 
the full supply of steam to enter the intermediate nozzle forcing 
the water through the delivery nozzle 25 into the boiler. 

At high steam pressure a vacuum is produced in the overflow 
chamber which draws an additional supply of water into the 
nozzles through the inlet valve 19, and through the supply open¬ 
ings between the nozzles, which additional water is forced into 
the boiler, thereby increasing the capacity of the injector under 
ordinary conditions of operation. 

In other injectors provided with the inlet valve, the injector 
does not prime properly, or not at all, if for some reason this 
valve leaks, but in the Simplex Injector the cut-out or emergency 
valve 35 is provided, which in such cases enables the inlet valve 
to be cut out and the injector to be operated until there is an 
opportunity to grind or otherwise repair the defect. 

The quantity of water needed is regulated by means of the 
water valve 13. 

The heater cock arrangement is made either in the form of a 
cam motion, as represented by parts 26 to 31, or in the form of a 
screw motion, as represented by parts 46 to 48. This check is 
closed down only when it is desired to warm the water in the 
tank, in which case it is accomplished either by means of the cam 
30, or the screw spindle 47. At all other times the heater cock 
check 26 must be allowed to open to its full extent. 


68 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



1 

Body. 

25 

Delivery Nozzle. 

2 

Steam Bonnet. 

26 

Heater Cock Check. 

3 

Steam Packing Nut. 

27 

Guide for Heater Cock 

4 

Lever. 


Check. 

5 

Lever Handle. 

28 

Nut for Cam Casing. 

6 

Guide for Steam Spindle. 

29 

Cam Casing. 

7 

Guide Pin. 

30 

Cam. 

8 

Lever Pin. 

31 

Cam Lever. 

9 

Fulcrum Bar. 

32 

Nozzle Holder. 

10 

Fulcrum Pin. 

33 

Linecheck Valve. 

11 

Steam Spindle. 

34 

Overflow Nozzle. 

12 

Lock Nut. 

35 

Emergency Valve. 

13 

Water Valve. 

36 

Packing Nut for Emer¬ 

14 

Water Valve Bonnet. 


gency Valve. 

15 

Water valve Nut. 

Steam, Water or Delivery 

16 

Water Valve Handle. 


(Specify): 

17 

Water Valve Topnut. 

37 Coupling Nut. 

18 

Inlet Valve Cap. 

38 Tailpiece. 

19 

Inlet Valve. 

For Heater Cock with Screw 

20 

Inlet Valve Seat. 


Motion: 

21 

Steam Nozzle. 

46 Guide For Heater Cock 

22 

Lifting Steam Nozzle. 


Check. 

23 

Intermediate Nozzle. 

47 Heater Cock Spindle. 

24 

Combining Nozzle. 

48 Heater Cock Handle. 

24a Combining Nozzle. 

49 

Overflow Pipe Sleeve, 















































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


69 


SELLERS’ CLASS “N” IMPROVED 
SELF-ACTING INJECTOR 

This injector is simply constructed and contains few operating 
parts. The lever is used in starting only, and the water valve for 
regulation of the delivery. It is self-adjusting with fixed nozzles 
and restarts automatically. All the valve seats that may need 
refacing can be removed; the body is not subject to wear and will 
last a lifetime. 

The action is as follows: Steam from the boiler is admitted 
to the lifting nozzle by drawing the starting lever 33 about 
one inch, which does not withdraw the plug on the end of the 
spindle 7 from the central part of the steam nozzle 3. Steam then 
passes through the small diagonal-drilled holes and discharges 
by the outside nozzle, through the upper part of the combining 
tube 2 and into the overflow chamber, lifts the overflow valve 30, 
and issues from the waste pipe 29. When water is lifted the 
starting lever 33 is drawn back, opening the forcing steam nozzle 
3, and the full supply of steam discharges into the combining 
tube, forcing the water through the delivery tube into the boiler 
pipe. 

At high steam pressures all injectors having side openings in 
the combining tube, produce a vacuum in the overflow chamber. 
In the Improved Self-Acting Injector this is utilized to draw an 
additional supply of water into the combining tube by opening 
the inlet valve 42; the water is forced by the jet into the boiler, 
increasing the capacity about 20 per cent. 

The water-regulating valve 40 is used only to adjust the 
capacity to suit the needs of the boiler. The range is unusually 
large (see page 70). 

The cam lever 34 is turned toward the steam pipe to prevent 
the opening of the overflow valve when it is desired to use the 
injector as a heater or to clean the strainer. The joint between 
the body 25 and the waste pipe 29 is not subject to other pressure 
than that due to the discharging steam and water during start¬ 
ing; the metal faces should be kept clean and the retaining nut 32 
screwed up tight. 

To tighten up the gland of the steam spindle, push in the 
starting lever 33 to end of stroke, remove the little nut 5 and 
draw back the lever 33. This frees the crosshead 8 and links 
15, which can be swung out of the way, and the follower 12 
tightened on the packing to make the gland steam-tight. 




70 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


METHOD OF OPERATING 


To Start —Pull out the Lever. 

To Stop —Push in the Lever. 

Regulate for quantity with the water regulating valve. 

Self-Acting Injector, Class N Improved. 



LIST OF PARTS, SELF-ACTING INJECTOR, 
CLASS N IMPROVED 


1 Delivery Tube. 

2 Combining Tube. 

3 Steam Nozzles. 

5 Spindle Nut. 

6 Steam Stuffing Box. 

7 Spindle. 

8 Crosshead. 

10 Water Stuffing Box. 

11 Follower. 

12 Packing Ring. 

13 Lock Nut. 

14 Follower for No. 10. 

15 Links. 

16 Packing Ring. 

19 Plain ) Rings for 
19a Reduc. \ Copper Pipe. 
20e Check Valve. 

22e Guide for No. 20e. 

23 Plain 1 Unions for 
23a Reduc. f Iron Pipes. 
23d Union, Overflow. 


24 Coupling Nut. 

24d Coupling Nut, Overflow. 

25 Injector Body. 

27 Wrench for No. 24. 

29 Waste Pipe. 

30 Waste Valve. 

31 Waste Valve Cam. 

32 Jam Nut for No. 29. 

33 Starting Lever. 

34 Cam Lever. 

35 Pin, Nos. 33 and 38. 

36 Cam Shaft. 

37 Washer on 36. 

38 Collar and Index. 

40 Plug Water Valve. 

41 Regulating Handle. 

42 Inlet Valve. 

55 Tube Wrench. 

57 Waste Pipe Connection. 
97n Cap under No. 42. 

309 Inlet Valve (Vertical). 

















The Allen-Richardson 
Balanced Slide Valve 

The Allen Valve is designed to at least partially prevent the 
wire-drawing of steam, when high speeds are maintained, with 
the valve cutting off early in the stroke. In the Allen ports, an 
additional passage for the intake of steam is furnished at such 
times, and consequently when the steam port is open one-half 
inch in the ordinary manner, the port of the cored passage is also 
open to a like extent on the other side of the valve, and conse¬ 
quently the effective area of the steam port is doubled, and the 
actual equivalent of a single port with a one inch opening. 

The wire-drawing incident to running at high speeds with the 
valve cutting off early in the stroke, is thus greatly diminished 
with a resultant economy of steam and fuel. A reduction of 
wire-drawing carries with it a higher average pressure on the 
piston when working at a similar cut-off, consequently the usual 
average pressure can be maintained with a shorter cut-off, re¬ 
sulting in an appreciable economy. While the unbalanced Allen 
Valve therefore secures a better and more economical distribution 
of steam, its use entails certain disadvantages. 

On the face of a slide valve, the area of bearing surface is 
never sufficient to secure its wearing well under a heavy steam 
pressure; and this wearing surface is yet further reduced in the 
Allen Valve, owing to its internal steam ports. This internal 
passage actually divides the valve into two parts, and the steam 
pressure, acting on the outer part, springs and bends its working 
face below that of the internal or exhaust port of the valve. The 
available wearing face is consequently reduced to a space about 
one-half as wide as the outside lap of the valve, and this fully 
accounts for the rapid wearing of the unbalanced Allen Valve, 
and, for the trouble and expense of constantly refacing valves and 
seats, and the loss of the steam blown through leaky valves, quite 
offsets the advantages gained by a reduction of wire-drawing. 

These manifest disadvantages are entirely overcome by a 
proper balancing of the valve, which secures all of the advantages 
of the Richardson device, plus an increased steam economy result¬ 
ing from using the Allen ports. 

To secure the best possible results from the employment of the 
Allen Balanced Valve, its ports and bridges should exceed the full 
travel of the valve by at least one-eighth of an inch, and the 
radius of the link should always be as long as permissible to 
escape an excessive increase of lead when cutting off early in 
the stroke. 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



Allen-Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. 
Longitudinal Section. 



Allen-Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. 
Transverse Section. 
























































The Walschaert Valve Gear* 


The Walschaert valve gear has been for many years the standard 
for locomotives on the State Railways of Belgium, and it is also 
extensively used in Germany and France. In the latter country it 
has been given preference over all others for the high-speed balanced 
compounds, which have made such remarkable records. 

In this gear the two motions, one derived from the crosshead and 
the other from a crank arm or eccentric, are so combined as to produce 
a resultant motion similar to that obtained from the stationary link, 
and it is therefore classed as a radial valve gear. The revolving ele¬ 
ment is usually derived from a return crank on the main pin, with the 
center at right angles to the crank arm. The angular advance 
becomes zero, and so far as this part is concerned the valve has 
neither lap nor lead. The link oscillates about a fixed axis and its 
arc has a radius equal to the length of the radius rod. A short arm 
is bolted to the crosshead, and from its lower end extends a hinged 
connector, with the other end pinned to the combination lever. The 
lever so combines the crank and crosshead motions that the angular 
advance is restored and the valve is given a constant lap and lead. 
The equalization of the cut-off with the Walschaert motion is a much 
simpler matter and is made with greater ease than with the shifting 
link. This is due to the constant relation of the valve and piston 
motions, which is obtained by the combination lever. 

The chief difference between the Walschaert and the link motions 
is the constant lead with the former when the valve travel is changed. 
This is due to the fact that at the end of the stroke the crosshead 
alone is responsible for the position of the valve, and as the crosshead 
always has the same position at the end of the stroke the valve will 
also have a definite location, and the travel may be decreased, but 
the lead remains constant. For high-speed locomotives, of the ordi¬ 
nary simple two-cylinder type, the constant lead may not be regarded 
as desirable, as early cut-offs are then used, and it is necessary to have 
greater preadmission, when the cut-off is so short, in order to permit 
the steam to enter the cylinder without excessive wire-drawing. 
With the four-cylinder balanced compound the cut-off need not be 
short. The record of the indicator cards taken from a locomotive of 
this kind on the Northern Railway of France, as given by M. Sauvage, 
shows that at 77 miles per hour the cut-off in the high pressure 
cylinder was 45 per cent, and in the low pressure cylinder 67 per cent. 
The Joy valve gear has a constant lead and it is used frequently in 
England in connection with inside cylinders, and it has not been 
found objectionable on account of this peculiarity. So far as the 
distribution of steam is concerned, the Walschaert valve motion will 
produce results as good as, if not better than, the link motion, and it 
has also mechanical advantages which recommend it. 

♦From Railway Magazine, London, Eng. 



74 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A valve gear outside of the frames is conveniently inspected and 
repaired, while one inside of the frames is certainly in an awkward 
position for either operation. With inside cylinders and crank axles 
there is little room for eccentrics and links, and if all this be removed 
it allows ample length for main pin bearings, and it is then possible 
to have an inside bearing for the crank axle. 

A point worth consideration, however, is the great contrast in the 
weight of the moving parts and the size of the bearings when this 
Walschaert outside gear is compared with similar parts of the link 
motion driven by eccentrics. A well-known American locomotive 
superintendent says: “I consider that the increased complication 
and weight of the valve motion is an exceedingly serious matter in 
giving distorted steam distribution, due to the destructive effect of 
the valve motion in causing wear and tear.” According to a paper 
issued about a year ago, the weights of parts of the link motion valve 
gear for large locomotives are as follows, in pounds: Eccentric, 212; 
eccentric strap, 225; eccentric rod, 125; link, 148; rocker arm, 248; 
transmission bar, 128; valve rod, 66; valve yoke, 90; valve, 211. 
These figures indicate that the link valve gear, including the eccen¬ 
trics and straps,- as found on some modern locomotives, has become a 
very ponderous affair. Some attention has been given to the valve 
pattern in the effort to make it as light as possible, but the same care 
has not been taken with the moving details connected with it, which 
easily become a disturbing factor at high speeds if made too heavy. 

The principal load which comes on the eccentrics and straps, 
causing them to heat, is not the friction of the valve, but it is that 
due to the inertia of the reciprocating parts of the valve gear whose 
motion is reversed twice for every revolution. If we include the 
rocker arm, the weight, as found above, of the moving parts from 
valve to eccentric strap for one cylinder is 1,052 pounds, and at high 
speeds the energy of this moving mass must impose a heavy load on 
the eccentrics. The eccentrics and straps are the most difficult 
details in the locomotive machinery to keep properly lubricated, and 
it requires constant vigilance to prevent them from heating. When 
they do heat and cut, and the straps are taken down, their location 
inside the frames is the most inconvenient one possible, and with the 
increasing weight of the machinery this part of the locomotive re¬ 
pairs has become very laborious and expensive. More attention 
should be given to the reduction of the weight of the moving parts of 
the link valve gear, or some other type should be used. The Wal¬ 
schaert gear located outside the frames is easily accessible and very 
convenient for inspection, lubrication, and repairs. The main 
driving bearings are two small pins with bushed bearings, and the 
contrast with the heavy cumbersome eccentrics and straps which 
are their equivalent in a valve gear system is very striking. This 
gear is simple and light throughout, and it has much to recommend it 
which would overcome the objectionable features of the shifting link 
motion driven by eccentrics. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


75 


Having described the Walschaert valve gear, an account of the 
career of its inventor is of interest. 

Egide Walschaert was born in 1820 at Mechlin, then a little retired 
village in the vicinity of Brussels. The railway line from Brussels to 
Malines was opened in 1835, and that decided the career of young 
Walschaert, who entered the railroad shops of the State Railways at 
Malines in 1842. He became chief superintendent of the shops of the 
Brussels Southern line, and at the early age of twenty-four had al¬ 
ready acquired to an eminent degree all the qualities which go to 
make the successful engineer, which ought to have secured to him in 
a few years the position of technical director of the locomotive service 
of the system. It is humiliating to state that he remained chief shop 
superintendent all the remaining active years of his life. 

On October 5, 1844, M. Fisher, engineer of the State Railways at 
Brussels, made an application in the name of Egide Walschaert for a 
patent of an invention relating to a new valve gear for locomotives. 
This Belgian patent was accorded by royal decree on November 30, 
1844, for a term of fifteen years. The rules of the railway did not 
allow the foreman of shops to advertise a patent in Belgium to his pro¬ 
fit, which explains, perhaps, the mediation of M. Fischer, who never 
claimed to have any part in the invention. The mechanism described 
in the patent of 1844 presents a strong resemblance to that which we 
are now familiar with, and the inventor constructed in 1848 a similar 
valve motion for application to locomotive No. 98. At this time the 
valve gear in use was that of Sharp, with two eccentrics and the usual 
forked rods. The shifting linfc attributed to Stephenson had been 
invented by Williams and Howe in 1842, and it is doubtful if Wal¬ 
schaert had ever seen it. The problem which to-day seems very easy 
was at that time an intricate one, and to Walschaert, who then gave 
the correct and most elegant solution, is certainly due unreserved 
admiration. He also invented a valve gear for stationary engines, 
somewhat on the Corliss or Sulzer principle, and he built at Brussels 
a shop for the manufacture of such engines, and this was managed by 
his son. 

At the Paris Exposition of 1878, a gold medal was awarded him for 
his engine, and in 1883 the exposition at Antwerp awarded him a 
diploma of honor, in which his locomotive valve gear was given 
merited praise. 

Walschaert died on February 18, 1901, at Saint Lilies, near Brus¬ 
sels, at the age of eighty-one years. His reputation, however great, 
was accepted with singular modesty, and his business relations were 
met with absolute disinterestedness. He gave his remarkable in¬ 
ventions to the world at a time when the study of steam distribution 
and valve gears was in its infancy, and he was deprived of the re¬ 
sources of a science which was not yet developed. On account of his 
great merits, which are here imperfectly recited, it is unfortunate 
that proper justice has not always been accorded Walschaert, for the 
ingenious mechanism which originated in his brain has been purloined 
through long in years the greater part of Europe. 



NAMES OF PARTS. 


76 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


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The Walschaert Valve Gear, with piston valve of inside admission, and list of names of different parts. 
























































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


77 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE WALSCHAERT 
VALVE GEAR.* 

In setting the Walschaert valve gear it must be borne in mind 
that two distinct motions are in combination, viz: The motion due 
to the crosshead travel, and the motion due to the eccentric throw. 

The crosshead motion controls the lead, by moving the valve 
sufficiently to overcome its lap, by the amount of lead in both front 
and back positions. The eccentric throw controls the travel and 
reversing operations. It will be seen that the movement due to the 
eccentric, without the crosshead motion, would place the valve cen¬ 
trally over the ports when the piston is at the extreme end of the 
stroke. The combined effect of these two motions, when the parts 
are properly designed, gives the required movement of the valve, 
similar to that obtained by the use of a stationary link. To reverse 
the engine the link block is moved from end to end of the link, instead 
of moving the link on the block. This operation is accomplished by 
means of a reversing shaft connected with a reversing lever in the cab. 

Walschaert gears should be correctly laid out and constructed 
from a diagram, as the proportions can not be tampered with by 
experimental changes without seriously affecting the correct working 
of the device. 

The only part capable of variation in length is the eccentric rod, 
which connects the eccentric with the link. This rod may be slightly 
lengthened or shortened, to correct errors in location of the link 
center, from center of driving axle which carries the eccentric. 

The eccentric usually assumes the form of a return crank on one of 
the crank pins, and its center is at right angles to the plane of motion, 
viz.: At ninety degrees to a line drawn from the point on the link at 
which the eccentric rod is attached, through the center of the driving 
axle. This eliminates the angular advance of the eccentric, and 
allows the use of a single eccentric for both forward and backward 
motion. The throw, as specified, must be correctly obtained, and 
great care taken that the position shown in the design be adhered to. 
The crank representing the eccentric is permanently fixed to the pin, 
and the slightest variation will be detrimental. 

When the engine is assembled, the throw of the eccentric should 
be checked up by the specifications, and any error should be at once 
reported in order that the mistake may be rectified by either correct¬ 
ing the position of the eccentric, or by a change in the design of the 
other parts to compensate for the error. 

In case of accident, if any of the rods or connections are broken, 
it is advisable if possible to disconnect the eccentric rod. The com¬ 
bining lever should be uncoupled from the crosshead and securely 


* Formulated by the Baldwin Locomotive Works. 




78 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


fastened in forward position. If for any reason the eccentric rod- 
can not be taken down, the radius rod must be removed in order that 
no motion may be imparted to the valve. The valve can then be 
placed in central position and held either by suitable blocking or by 
clamping the valve rod. This seals both steam ports and cuts out 
the cylinder on the damaged side. 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR ERECTING AND SETTING 
THE VALVES. 

1. —Check carefully the dimensions of the following parts, re¬ 
jecting any that are not exactly to drawing: 

a. Valve. 

b. Valve stem. 

c. Valve crosshead or slide. 

d. Combining lever. 

e. Crosshead link. 

f. Link radius rod. 

g. Reverse link. 

h. Location of combining lever on crosshead. 

k. Length of eccentric crank. 

2. —Check eccentric throw to see that it is exactly as specified. 

3. —Be sure that guide bearer is correctly located from center 
of cylinder, as the reverse link is usually attached to it, and varia¬ 
tions in the location of the link can not be allowed. If the link is 
attached to separate crosstie, similar precautions must be taken to 
insure its correct location. 

4. —Exercise great care in the location of the link so that the 
trunnion center is exactly to dimensions from the center of cylinder. 

5. —See that the reverse shaft center is correctly located to dimen¬ 
sions given, and that the lifting arm and link are of the exact lengths 
as specified. 

6. —Connect crosshead gear to valve, and radius rod to link, 
without connecting eccentric rod to link. 

7. —Hook up radius rod to exact center of link, and then revolve 
driving wheels, seeing that crosshead gear gives correct lead as 
specified for both front and back admission ports. 

8. —Connect link to return crank by eccentric rod, and obtain full 
travel front and back, and in both forward and backward motions, 
correcting any errors by lengthening or shortening eccentric rod, as 
previously noted. 

The valves may now be considered as definitely set, and may be 
tested to any cut-off points in the usual manner. 

A simple additional check should be made as follows: 

Set one side of the engine so that piston is at its extreme forward 
position in cylinder, and check lead on admission port. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


79 


In this position it should be possible to move the link block 
through its entire travel in the link, without in any way disturbing 
the movement of the valve. 

This operation should then be reversed, and the other side of the 
engine similarly tried with the piston located at its extreme back¬ 
ward position in the cylinder. 


HELMHOLTZ MODIFICATION. 

Among the various modifications of the Walschaert gear the 
one made by Helmholtz is probably of some advantage. This modi¬ 
fication consists in making the link straight and the radius bar is 
connected to the lifting link instead of the link block. The curving 
of the link is compensated for by the reversing shaft or lifting arm 
fulcrum being located in a given position above the link so that the 
locus of the suspension point of the lifting link forms an arc of a 
circle with its chord perpendicular to the center line of the radius bar 
in its center position. The radius of this arc bears the same rela¬ 
tion to the length of the radius bar as the distance, of the radius bar 
connection above the link block bears to the length of the lifting 
link, which results in that this connection is moving in an arc with a 
radius of the length of the radius bar and the same motion of the 
valve is obtained as in the direct Walschaert gear. 

Two advantages may be claimed for this modification, of which 
one is the straight link being simpler to make than the curved one, 
and the other is that on large piston valve engines with inside ad¬ 
mission the link fulcrum can be lowered by the amount the radius bar 
connection falls over the link block, whereby the eccentric rod con¬ 
nection can be brought closer to the center line of the axle with less 
length of link and eccentric throw. It has, however, the disadvan¬ 
tage that there is little choice in the location of the reversing shaft 
or lifting arm fulcrum, a proper position for which is hardly obtain¬ 
able on all types of engines and admits of no other method of lift¬ 
ing the radius bar in linking up or reversing the engine. 



80 


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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
THE WALSCHAERT VALVE 
GEAR 


Q. 1.—What is meant by valve motion? 

A.—Valve motion, or valve gear, refers to the system of rods, 
levers, etc., that tansmits motion to the main valve that is used to 
admit steam to, and exhaust it from, the cylinder of an engine; it is 
the action of the steam in the cylinder that empowers the piston. 

Q. 2.—What are the principal parts of the Walschaert valve gear, 
and how do they act? 

A.—First, the eccentric crank, attached to the main crank pin, 
which imparts motion to the valve through the connecting rods and 
levers, but one Crank being used for both forward and backward 
motion instead of two eccentrics, as with the Stephenson gear; the 
eccentric rod, connecting the eccentric crank to the bottom of the 
link; the link, by means of which the engine is reversed and steam 
cut off as desired; the radius rod connecting the link to the com¬ 
bination lever; the union link connecting the crosshead to the com¬ 
bination or lap and lead lever; the combination or lap and lead lever 
connecting the union link to the valve stem and radius rod; the valve 
stem connecting the combination lever with the valve; the lifting 
arm connecting the radius rod with the tumbling or reverse shaft; 
the reach rod connecting the tumbling shaft with the reverse lever; 
the reverse lever and the quadrant. The action of the reverse lever, 
tumbling shaft and lifting arm is exactly the same with the Wal¬ 
schaert as with the Stephenson gear; the eccentric crank likewise 
acts the same as the eccentric on the Stephenson gear, in that the 
wheel as it rotates causes this crank to impart a forward and back¬ 
ward movement to the link through the eccentric rod. With the 
Walschaert gear, however, the link is not raised and lowered as with 
the Stephenson gear, the movement of the reverse lever simply 
moving the link block up and down in the link, the radius rod being 
connected to the link block; neither does the eccentric crank over¬ 
come the lap or impart lead to the valve as with the Stephenson gear, 
the lap being overcome and the lead imparted by means of the com¬ 
bination or lap and lead lever which is operated by means of the 
crosshead. 

Q. 3.—What are the principal differences between the Stephenson 
and Walschaert valve gears, and what are the advantages of these? 

A.—As explained above, the principal points of difference are 
that with the Stephenson gear two eccentrics are necessary on 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


81 


each side of the engine in order to impart forward and backward 
movement, while with the Walschaert gear but one eccentric crank is 
necessary. Also with the Stephenson gear the link is raised and 
lowered when the cut-off is to be altered and engine reversed, while 
with the Walschaert gear the link block is raised and lowered. Again, 
with the Stepehson gear the lap of the valve is overcome and lead is 
given by the eccentric, while with the Walschaert gear the lap is 
overcome and lead is given by means of the combination or lap and 
lead lever; also with the Stephenson gear the lead varies or increases 
as the lever is hooked up, while with the Walschaert gear the lead 
remains constant. Another advantage is, that the Walschaert gear 
is all outside, where it is easily inspected, lubricated, or repaired. 
The weight of the Walschaert gear is considerably less than that of a 
Stephenson gear for the same size engine. The Walschaert gear has 
less wearing parts and consequently is not so liable, as these parts 
wear, to produce an uneven steam distribution as with the Stephenson 
gear. 

Q. 4.—What advantages has the Walschaert valve gear over the 
Stephenson link motion, aside from those generally known, such as 
convenience for inspection and repairs, reduced first cost, and greater 
durability? 

A.—One of the chief advantages of the Walschaert gear is its wide 
range of adaptability. It may be applied to any design of loco¬ 
motive without the aid of the usual accessories, such as transmission 
bars f unwieldy eccentric blades, and other features that tend to make 
the Stephenson gear expensive and cumbersome, as well as less 
durable than the other gear. It also permits of more substantial 
frame bracing, as the space between the drivers is free for any kind 
of bracing desired. 

Q. 5.—Is the bottom of the link always used for the forward 
motion with Walschaert gear? 

A.—The lower part of link usually is where the link block is 
placed with the lever in forward motion. The upper part of link is 
sometimes used for forward motion. 

Q. 6.—With Walschaert gear how can one tell if engine has out¬ 
side or inside admission valve? 

A.—If the valve is inside admission, the radius rod is connected 
to top of combination lever, above valve stem, or valve stem cross¬ 
head connection with combination lever. If outside admission, the 
connection of combination lever with radius rod is below the point of 
its connection with valve stem crosshead. This change reverses the 
movement of valve with relation to the piston movement. 

Q. 7.—What is meant by the “expansive force” of the steam? 

A.—For the production of power, matter must first be changed 
in form or state, and its effort to return to its original form or state 
creates a force that may be employed and controlled. Through the 
action of heat, water in a locomotive boiler is changed to compressed 
steam, and in its effort to expand—to fill a larger space—this force is 



82 


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created; when the steam is being released through the cylinders of an 
engine its expansion, to make more room for itself, forces the piston 
from it; as it expands its pressure lessens, but if steam is continually 
admitted to the cylinder during the whole stroke of the piston its 
power continues undiminished, because the comparatively small 
cylinder is receiving the expansive effort from the whole boiler, and in 
this case expansion really drives the piston, but the term is not made 
use of. If the admission of steam from a boiler pressure of 100 pounds 
to a cylinder with a piston stroke of 24 inches should be closed after 
the piston has traveled, say 12 inches, the pressure against the piston 
at the instant of cessation of boiler supply would be, approximately, 
100 pounds per square inch, but thereafter, as the piston was forced 
to advance in its travel, the pressure of the steam in the cylinder 
would decrease in inverse ratio to the increase in its volume—the 
increasing space between the piston and the pressure head of the 
cylinder—until, when the piston had completed its twenty-fourth 
inch of stroke, and if the exhaust had not yet commenced, the steam 
would have a pressure approximating 50 pounds per square inch, for 
the volume of the steam would then be twice what it was at the time 
of the cut-off of its supply. If the closure of steam supply had been 
earlier in the stroke than 12 inches the expansion would have been 
carried further, and the steam finally released from the cylinder at a 
still lower pressure; but in a locomotive cylinder steam is never 
expanded down to a pressure lower than that which will produce the 
required power. In starting a heavy train expansion, as we term it, 
is not made use of, while the lighter the train and the faster it is run, 
the shorter will be the duration of steam admission to the cylinder, 
with a consequent increase in the length of expansive effort of the 
steam at each stroke of the piston. Steam is capable of doing work 
until it has expanded down to an equivalent of atmospheric pressure, 
and at that stage will still exert a force of nearly 15 pounds to the 
square inch if a vacuum be produced on the opposite side of the piston 
by complete condensation of the exhaust steam. The engine that 
shows the greatest economy in the use of steam is the one in which 
there is the widest difference between the cylinder pressures at the 
times of steam admission and release. 

Q. 8.—From where does valve gear, of any type, receive its 
actuation? 

A.—As the valve controls the action of the piston its phases must 
be coincidental with certain regularly reoccuring phases of the 
piston’s operation; therefore, the valve must receive its motion from 
some point or combination of points in the machinery that is ac¬ 
tuated by the piston. 

Q. 9.—What type of valve is required in association with the 
Walschaert style of gear? 

A.—As with the common link motion, any type of valve that is 
in favor may be used with the Walschaert gear. The valve is not 
regarded really as a part of the valve gear. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


83 


Q. 10.—How many general types of valves are there in locomotive 
use? 

A.—There are many styles of valves, but all are embraced within 
two general types—slide valves and piston valves. A slide valve, or 
“D-slide valve,” so called because in sectional side elevation it has 
the appearance of a reclining capital letter D, has a flat, plane face 
bearing on its seat, and the admission of steam to the ports to each 
end of the cylinder is past the ends of the valve, while the exhaust is 
through the inside cavity, and a slide valve is, therefore, of “outside 
admission.” If the total area of the top side of the slide valve was 
exposed to the full steam pressure from the boiler, it would cause the 
valve to work very hard on account of its high frictional resistance, 
but slide valves now have a large portion of the steam area balanced, 
causing them to work quite easily. Piston valves are in the form of 
a spool, the wide ends being really pistons similar to the main piston 
in the cylinder joined by the narrower tube of the spool, which is 
generally hollow, so that both ends of the valve chamber are in com¬ 
munication with each other, although some motive power officials 
use closed spools, as both ends of the valve chamber are otherwise 
in communication with each other. When piston valves are of out¬ 
side admission the live boiler pressure occupies the ends of the valve 
chamber and the intermediate space between the pistons is open to 
the exhaust, so that the action is not unlike that of the D-slide valve. 
But most piston valves are of inside admission, wherein the ends of 
the valve chamber are open to the exhaust and the middle space 
holds the live steam; this balances the valve, fore and aft, perfectly, 
as the areas inside of the valve are equal, while outside end pressures 
on the valve are unequal, due to the space occupied by the valve- 
stem; with inside admission, also, there is no pressure against the 
valve stem packing, except that of the exhaust steam. When out¬ 
side admission valves start to open an admission port to the cylinder, 
either regularly or for lead, they must move in the same direction the 
piston will move, while an inside admission valve must go in an op¬ 
posite direction to the resulting travel of the piston, so that the live 
steam can pass from the inside of the valve to the admission port; 
and while it is doing this the port from the opposite end of Ihe cyl¬ 
inder is open to the opposite end of the valve chamber and the 
exhaust. 

Q. 11.—What is the theoretical position of the valve in relation to 
the piston, with either of the common types of locomotive valve gear? 

A.—With outside admission the valve is always one-fourth of a 
cycle of motion, or double stroke, ahead of the piston; inside admis¬ 
sion valves follow the piston by that distance. 

Q. 12.—What is meant by direct or indirect valve motion? 

A.—Valve motion is direct when there is no reversion in the line 
of motion between the eccentric and valve; indirect when there is 
such reversion, as by the double rocker arms of the Stephenson link 
motion, etc. 



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Q. 13.—What is lead? 

A.—It has been stated that a valve of outside admission should 
travel one-fourth of a cycle in advance of the piston, and to obtain 
this result with direct motion the eccentric that actuates the valve 
must be located at a point on the axle, or wheel, just 90 degrees 
ahead of the main crank pin—in respect to the direction in which the 
engine is to run under the influence of that eccentric—and with 
indirect motion the location of the eccentric is 90 degrees behind the 
crank pin; but, with the eccentric so placed, when the crank pin was 
on either dead center, at the beginning of a stroke—the valve would 
be exactly centered on its seat with both steam admission ports 
widely covered—“widely,” for the valve is considerably longer than 
the distance between the outer edges of the two admission ports—and 
as the wheels began to turn from the action of the engine on the other 
side the piston on this side would have been carried some distance 
in the cylinder before the valve would have moved far enough to 
uncover the admission port. In common practice, however, an 
alteration is effected in the gear whereby the valve—of either inside 
or outside admission—is advanced slightly further than its theoretical 
position, with the result that as the piston is nearing the end of its 
stroke, in either direction, the admission port will start to open. 
This gives a preadmission of steam against the piston that is expected 
to cushion the sudden stoppage of the motion work, and to provide a 
full opening for steam admission earlier in the course of the piston’s 
stroke. This preliminary opening of the admission ports is referred 
to as the lead. 

Q. 14.—Does lead have any further effects than those just stated? 

A.—Yes; all of the regular events of the valve are hastened, and 
while steam will be admitted to the cylinder earlier in the course of 
the piston’s stroke, it will be closed off correspondingly earlier; there 
is nothing in the matter of lead that can make the steam push against 
the piston during a longer part of the stroke than it would if lead were 
not present; in either case steam is admitted to the cylinder during 
the time that the crank is describing a certain number of degrees on 
the wheel’s circle, and lead brings those degrees of force back to a 
point where the crank is effective—the dead center—with a conse¬ 
quent loss of power. Lead also causes an fcarlier closing of the ex¬ 
haust, which in turn creates an undesirably high degree of compres¬ 
sion between the piston and the cylinder head toward which it is 
advancing. 

Q. 15.—Does not compression take place even though the valve 
should not be advanced for the purpose of securing lead? 

A.—Yes; with any valve having lap, if it should be exactly central 
on its seat when the piston has arrived at the end of its stroke, there 
would be compression, for the reason that as the piston is nearing the 
end of the cylinder the valve is commencing to cover the exhaust 
opening, and before the piston has completed its stroke the exhaust 
is so strictured by the constantly lessening area of opening that even 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


85 


if the exhaust port is not entirely closed when the valve is on center 
there will be a certain amount of compression between the piston and 
cylinder head. But with the mere absence of lead opening of the 
admission port there will be a considerable amount of compression, 
for after the exhaust has closed the valve will have to travel the 
distance of its lap before the admission port is edge-and-edge with 
the valve, and while the valve is doing this distance the piston is 
moving through an equal proportion of its stroke, but toward the 
finish, with the exhaust port covered. So, in almost any conceivable 
case there is enough back pressure toward the finish of the piston’s 
stroke to cushion its stop and the sudden reversal of the motion work, 
without the preadmission of live steam as lead for that purpose. 

Q. 16.—What is it that causes this inevitable compression? 

A.—It is due to the lap of the valve. 

Q. 17.—What is the lap of the valve? 

A.—As stated before, when the valve is centered exactly on its 
seat its front and back edges extend beyond the outside edges of the 
admission ports, and the distance that the valve so “overlaps” the 
ports is called the outside, or steam, lap, this with outside admission 
valves; with any kind of valve it is the distance the valve must be 
moved from an exactly central position on its seat until the admission 
port starts to open. With inside admission valves the steam lap is 
to the inside; the inner edges of the valve pistons overlap the admis¬ 
sion ports by the same distance as do the outer edges of a slide valve 
of the same moments. The expansive strength of steam could not be 
obtained in an engine cylinder if its valve was without lap, for the lap 
of the valve extends the time between the completion of the cut-off of 
steam admission to the cylinder and the commencement of the ex¬ 
haust opening from the cylinder. 

Q. 18.—Then in order to secure preadmission of steam to the 
cylinder, or lead, the valve must be advanced in its direction of 
travel a distance equal to the lap plus the decided amount of lead 
opening? 

A.—Yes; this should always be remembered. 

Q. 19.—What is the method of securing this valve advance with 
the Stephenson link motion? 

A.—It is accomplished by moving both the “go-ahead” and 
“back-up” eccentrics in the proper direction on the main shaft, or 
axle. 

Q. 20.—How is lead obtained by the Walschaert gear? 

A.—The device of the combination lever is employed in the 
Walschaert gear to produce the secondary motion of the valve by 
which it is advanced to overcome the delay in its movement due to 
the lap, and also to give the port opening for lead when such is 
desired; and to do this is the sole function of the combination lever. 
While in either type of gear the motion of the piston must eventually 
furnish every motion of the valve. The Stephenson plan must change 
the straight-line motion derived from the piston into the circular 



86 


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motion of the wheel and axle, and back again to the straight-line 
motion of the valve for each of its several functions, and this in¬ 
troduces errors impossible to entirely overcome. The Walschaert 
gear, however, takes the straight-line motion of the piston right at 
the crosshead and, through the combination lever, a short, diverting 
motion is imparted to the valve stem that most accurately shifts the 
position of the valve the required amount for lead. 

Q. 21.—Then, if an engine with the Walschaert gear was standing 
with crank pin on the forward dead center, with cylinder cocks open, 
and the throttle should be opened if no steam should blow from the 
forward cylinder cock it would prove that this engine had no lead to 
the front admission port, would it not? And if the valve gear was 
correctly set up, would not the one foregoing test prove the amount 
of or absence of lead to the back admission port as well? And would 
not such test have the same result if made with the crank on either 
dead center? 

A.—Yes to each question, because the combination lever gives 
exactly equal results at the finish of each stroke of the piston. 

Q. 22.—And if an engine standing should prove to have no lead 
because no steam blew from the cylinder cock, would it still be neces¬ 
sary for a combination lever to be used? 

A.—Yes. In the Walschaert gear the combination lever is a 
necessity whenever the valve has any steam lap, and all locomotive 
valves have. 

Q. 23.—Does the amount of lead supplied by the Walschaert gear 
remain the same at all points of the cut-off? 

A.—Yes; the lead is permanent for all points of cut-off, does not 
change, and can not be changed. 

Q. 24.—In the Stephenson link motion does the lead vary? 

A.—It does. The position of each eccentric is adjusted on the 
axle to a certain amount of lead when in full gear, but as the reverse 
lever is hooked up toward the center the lead increases in amount. 

Q- 25.—Are there not different ideas held concerning the real 
meaning of the term “lead”? 

A.—Yes. Many engineers refer to the shift in position of the 
Stephenson eccentrics, or the presence of the Walschaert combination 
lever, as simply for the purpose of securing lead, when, as explained, 
the valve may be set blind—without lead—yet still the valve should 
not be centered with the crank pin on a dead center. 

Q. 26.—How may it be known from outward appearance whether 
with the Walschaert gear a piston valve is of inside or outside ad¬ 
mission? 

A.—This depends upon the individual design of the reversing 
gear principally, but in the strictly American style of construction, 
whereby the radius rod is lowered when the reverse lever is thrown 
forward and raised by throwing it back, and assuming an engine to 
be running forward, for the sake of distinction, with outside admis¬ 
sion valves of either the D-slide or piston type, the eccentric is 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


87 


located 90 degrees ahead of the main crank pin, and the valve stem 
is connected to the upper end of the combination lever, with the 
radius rod connection to the combination lever beneath it; with in¬ 
side admission valves the eccentric is located 90 degrees behind the 
crank pin, and the radius rod is connected to the upper end of the 
combination lever with the valve stem connection beneath it. 

Q. 27.—Is the Walschaert valve gear of the type referred to as of 
“direct motion’’? 

A.—The Walschaert motion is either direct or indirect, according 
as to which direction the engine is running. When the radius rod is 
working below the center, or fulcrum, of the link there is a single 
direction of motion from the eccentric to the valve and the motion is 
direct; but with the radius rod working above the center of the link, 
the motion is indirect, for the reason that the link then acts as a 
double rocker-arm, and when the eccentric throws the lower end of 
the link in one direction the upper end of the link moves the valve the 
opposite way. 

Q. 28.—In referring to “shorter cut-off,” and “hooking-up,” 
do not both expressions mean the same? 

A.—“Shorter cut-off” is an effect with “hooking-up” as the cause. 
With the Walschaert gear, if the reverse should be set in either 
extreme end notch of the quadrant, it will cause the radius rod to be 
carried at either the extreme upper or lower end of the link, thus 
giving the valve its longest travel and admitting steam to the cyl¬ 
inder during the greater part of the piston’s stroke. Hooking-up, 
means changing the position of the reverse lever to a notch nearer the 
center of the quadrant in either forward or back gear, and as this 
brings the radius rod and link-block correspondingly nearer to the 
center of the link, a shorter motion is imparted to the valve, and the 
admission of steam to the cylinder and the exhaust therefrom are cut 
off—cease—at earlier periods in the course of the piston’s stroke. 
Hence the expression of “shorter cut-off.” 

Q. 29.—What further effects are produced in advancing the valve 
to create the lead opening, that can not be regarded as beneficial? 

A.—The advance of the valve causes an earlier closing of the ex¬ 
haust of the used steam from the cylinder, thereby creating higher 
compression ahead of the piston—between the piston and the cyl¬ 
inder head toward which it is traveling; the o-ut-off of live steam that 
is being admitted to the cylinder occurs sooner during the piston’s 
stroke, and this detracts from the turning power of the main crank 
when the engine is working in full gear with a heavy load; and, as 
giving lead hastens all of the valve events, the steam that is driving 
the piston is retained in the cylinder during a shorter part of its 
stroke, and this earlier steam release is a loss of a certain per cent of 
the steam’s expansive force. 

Q. 30.—The Stephenson link motion may be either “direct”or 
“indirect.” How about the Walschaert gear in this respect? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—The Walschaert gear is of direct motion when the reverse 
lever is forward of the central notch of the quadrant and the radius 
rod below the center of the link, for there is then a direct, or un¬ 
reversed line of motion from eccentric to valve, the link acting as a 
single-arm rocker; it is of indirect motion with the reverse lever in 
any back-up notch, as then the radius rod is carried above the link 
center and the motion produced by the eccentric and transmitted to 
the lower end of the link by the eccentric rod is reversed by the 
oscillation of the link, and the motion it delivers to the radius rod and 
valve is in an opposite direction, therefore, to that received from the 
eccentric, the link in the latter case acting as a double-arm rocker. 

Q. 31.—Will the eccentric of the Walschaert gear give any move¬ 
ment to the valve when the engine is running if the reverse lever is 
standing in the center notch of the quadrant? 

A.—No; for then the radius rod is being carried at the center of 
the link and will receive no motion; but the valve will have the short 
travel derived from the crosshead, through the combination lever, 
a travel equal to twice the length of the valve’s lap and lead added 
together. The pin in the forward end of the radius rod at this time 
acts as a fixed fulcrum to the combination lever which is receiving 
no motion except from the crosshead. 

Q. 32.—When the reverse lever is forward of the center of the 
quadrant the radius rod is working in the lower half of the link, and 
with the lever back of the center the radius rod is in the upper half of 
the link—is it not? 

A.—Such is common American practice; but if it will simplify the 
reversing gear the radius rod.may work above the link center in thie 
forward motion, and many European engines with Walschaert gear 
are so designed. 

Q. 33.—Is it easier to secure equal cut-off of the admission of 
steam to each end of the cylinder with the Walschaert gear than with 
the Stephenson link motion? 

A.—Yes; in the Walschaert gear the opening and closing moments 
of the ports are accomplished with equal precision in each direction 
of the valve’s travel and can not be otherwise, for, as the piston 
moves in either direction from the center of the cylinder it causes the 
combination lever to move the valve in an opposite direction with 
outside admission, and in the same direction with inside admission 
valves of the piston type, but in either case the distance the valve is 
moved exactly equals a certain and fixed proportion of the distance 
of the piston’s travel, this being the leverage proportions of the 
combination lever. 

Q. 34.—The curve of the Stephenson link is from a backward radius. 
Why is the curve of the Walschaert link on a radius from ahead? 

A.—As the radius rod, by its attachment to the link-block, may 
be carried at any point in the link according to the direction of 
motion and the point of cut-off, raising or lowering the radius rod 
from the center would put it at an untrue angle with the link if the 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


89 


curve of the link were not toward the radius rod and of a radius equal 
to the length of the radius rod from its pin connection with the com¬ 
bination lever to the link-block pin. Setting the engine on either 
dead center, for instance: The reverse lever may be brought from one 
end of its sector clear over to the farthest opposite notch without 
shifting the position of the valve in the slightest degree if all parts of 
the motion work have been correctly designed and properly set up, 
for, while the link-block is being moved from one end of the link slot 
to the other it is at all times equidistant from a fixed point repre¬ 
sented by the location of the pin connecting the radius rod and 
combination lever when the radius rod is at the center of the link; to 
enable this to occur, the radius and direction of curve of the link must 
conform to the radius rod; and it is called the radius rod because its 
length determines the radius of the link’s curvature. 

Q. 35.—Is the eccentric rod always connected directly with the 
link foot? 

A.—No; but it must have the same effect. Sometimes the valve 
chest lies so far in toward the center line of the engine that the link, 
to be in line, is also too far in for direct connection with the eccentric 
rod, and in such cases it is common for the link to have a supporting 
and carrying fulcrum pin on but one side—the outer side—and this 
fulcrum pin attached to the outer link bracket is lengthened to form 
a shaft working in a journal box, and extended outward far enough to 
have an arm attached to it in line with the eccentric rod; this arm 
reaches down as much farther than the lower end of the link as the 
link foot would extend, for the connection of the eccentric rod. When 
this method of connecting the eccentric rod with the link is employed 
there is, of course, no link foot, the link having exactly the same 
lengths above and below its central trunnion. 

Q. 36.—Does the length of the radius rod hanger, and the location 
of its point of suspension, have any material effect on the action of 
the Walschaert gear? 

A.—It does, to a remarkable degree. There is but one correct 
location for the point of suspension, and that point can only be 
determined by an expert designer of the gear, and any variation from 
the true focus will introduce serious error in the motion. As to the 
length of the suspension bar, that also has considerable influence on 
the action, but there is a variance of opinion as to the length of sus¬ 
pension bar that should give the more nearly correct results. On one 
of the earlier Mason engines the suspension bar extended from the 
radius rod to a lifting arm on a reversing shaft that was carried 
across the top of the boiler, while in a much later design of the Wal¬ 
schaert gear by the same builders the height of suspension above the 
radius rod was only equal to one-half the length of the link. The 
former was an extreme case, but the latter was not. 

Q. 37.—Does the Walschaert gear admit of experimental changes 
or readjustments in the roundhouse or on the road, such as seem to 
be required with the common link motion? 



90 


BNGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—No; there is no portion of the Walschaert gear that can be 
lengthened or shortened, outside of the general repair shop, nor will 
there be any necessity for alterations in the motion work. Formerly 
it was the practice to fit the Walschaert eccentric rod with screw 
adjustments in order to correct through it any little variation in the 
proportions of other parts of the gear or slight errors in fixing the 
location of permanent positions of the gear forward of the eccentric. 
Such a screw take-up is impractical with the very heavy rods now 
used, but its length may be slightly changed by adjusting the bear¬ 
ings at the eccentric end on some engines. Even were it possible to 
do so no change should ever be made in the motion work of this gear 
ahead of the eccentric rod except in the “back shop.” 

Q. 38.—Does lost, or slack, motion appear in the Walschaert gear 
from wear at the connections or other sources as rapidly as it does in 
the Stephenson gear? 

A.—No; and one of the greatest recommendations for the Wal¬ 
schaert gear is the almost entire absence of slack due to wearing away 
of the bearing parts, thus insuring continuous regularity in the 
distribution of steam to the cylinders. Under ordinary conditions 
an engine will run from shopping to shopping without having had 
any part of the Walschaert gear closed on account of worn looseness, 
and the engine will re-enter the shop with the valve gear cutting off 
the steam, often, with no perceptible loss in economy; this is largely 
due to the fact that all connections are made with pins working in 
bushings, all case-hardened, and no large eccentrics with the enorm¬ 
ous frictional surfaces of their sheave and strap. 

Q. 39.—The Walschaert eccentric is always referred to as being 
located 90 degrees from the main crank pin. Is this correct? 

A.—Actually measured in degrees the Walschaert eccentric will 
usually be found to be located somewhat nearer to the crank pin than 
the nominal 90 degrees when outside admission valves are used, and 
an engine with exactly the same set-up of gear except in having inside 
admission valves would have the eccentric placed just the same 
number of degrees more than 90 away from the crank pin. 

It must be remembered that the link is so centered with the 
valve as to impart to it a motion free from the result of incorrect 
angles, and in order to obtain that result the link is hung so high that 
there is an undesirable angle in the transmission of motion from the 
eccentric to the link. The ideally correct design of the Walschaert 
gear locates the connection of eccentric rod to link exactly on the 
center line through the axle, and when so placed in actual construc¬ 
tion the eccentric will be located exactly 90 degrees from the crank 
pin; but, as explained, this location is not commonly obtained on 
modern locomotives; if the link foot was extended down to receive the 
eccentric rod connection at the theoretically correct location its 
length would shorten the throw of the link to an impossible extent, so 
a compromise is effected; the link foot is extended as low as may be 
permissible, and to correct the error still existing, due to the 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


91 


angularity of the eccentric rod’s position, the location of the 
eccentric is slightly shifted in the indicated direction. 

Q. 40.—While an engine is running the bounding up and down 
due to the spring action affects the proper working of the Stephen¬ 
son gear, causing imperfect steam distribution. What effect does 
the rough carriage of the engine have on the Walschaert gear? 

A.—It has no discernable effect, and when the link is set low 
enough that with the crank pin on the dead center the pin con¬ 
necting the eccentric rod with the link foot will be on the hori¬ 
zontal center line through the axle—its theoretically correct loca¬ 
tion—the rise and fall of the engine will then have absolutely no 
effect on the motion imparted to the valve. 

Q. 41.—By reason of the return crank projecting the Wal¬ 
schaert eccentric out and further from the driving box than the 
Stephenson eccentrics are usually placed, is it not the case that 
lost motion in the driving boxes will introduce greater irregu¬ 
larities in the action of the Walschaert valve gear? 

A.—Not at all; for, while the Walschaert eccentric may be 
deflected slightly further than those of the Stephenson type, lost 
motion in the boxes is largely dissipated by the very great lever 
length between the suspension pins of the link and the eccentric 
rod connection with the link foot, and through which any motion 
engendered by the eccentric is reduced by a certain and con¬ 
siderable proportion when transmitted to the radius rod and 
valve. Loose driving boxes should not be permitted, however, as 
the general effectiveness of an engine with any style of valve 
gear is seriously impaired when the driving boxes are in such 
condition that setting up the wedges will not remove the lost 
motion at those points. 

Q. 42.—Do the connections or other bearing parts of the Wal¬ 
schaert gear have a tendency to heat in service? 

A.—No. This valve gear is peculiarly free from any disposition 
toward heating; there have been certain cases where it has not 
been designed to meet the unusual conditions of track and service, 
and the eccentric rod pins have heated on account of the twisting 
effect, on rough track, between the parts carried by the driving 
wheel and the parts carried by the main frame. Such troubles 
are not constitutional, are easily cured and never need to have 
existed. 

Q. 43.—In connection with the Walschaert gear, how may the 
valve be exactly centered upon its seat so that with open throttle 
steam will not blow from the open cylinder cocks? 

A.—With valves of either inside or outside admission, when the 
crosshead is at the exact center of its travel with crank pin on 
the upper or lower working quarter, reverse lever in center notch 
of the quadrant and the combination lever standing—as it must— 
in a plumb, vertical position, its two upper connection pins on 
the same vertical line—then the valve is at the perfect center. 



92 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 44.—What is the meaning of the above reference to the crank 
pin as being on the “working quarter”? 

A.—As explained in answer to a previous question, when the 
crank pin is on the perfect quarter it is on a vertical line through the 
.hub center, either above or below it, but owing to the angularity of 
the main rod the piston is not then at the exact center of its stroke; 
but when the piston is at the true center of the cylinder—as out¬ 
wardly indicated by the crosshead lying at the center of its travel in 
the guides—the crank pin is then a few degrees forward of the true 
quarter, but is usually referred to as being on the quarter at that 
time—therefore the working quarter. This difference sometimes 
causes confusion, and in alluding to the placing of an engine “on the 
quarter”.it should be stated whether the quarter is to be fixed in 
reference to the position of the crosshead or crank pin. 

Q. 45.—If an engine with the Walschaert gear is standing on the 
working quarter, the piston at the exact center of the cylinder and 
the reverse lever in the center notch of the quadrant, suppose that 
the valve was not truly centered—steam would blow from one of the 
cylinder cocks with the throttle open. What would be the cause, and 
how could the cause be detected and remedied? 

A.—With the gear in this position there would have to be an 
extensive error indeed to allow steam to blow from a cylinder cock, 
as this would indicate a false movement of the valve more than 
equaling the length of its lap, and might be caused by a piston valve 
loose on the stem, or a broken yoke with a slide valve. However, if 
error is indicated in the position of the valve, first be sure that the 
reverse lever is in the center notch; if the notch is indicated there 
may have been a mistake in laying out the notches or in setting up 
the quadrant, but if the link trunnion and link block pin coincide 
exactly that is what we want and the reverse lever is centered all 
right, and in that case if the piston is also truly centered and the 
valve is not, probably the link bearer, which is commonly attached 
to the guides, varies a little in its position, fore or aft, and should be 
moved far enough to correct the error; or the valve valve stem can 
be lengthened or shortened, but as this induces other minor errors the 
other method would be preferable. 

Q. 46.—If the link bearer should be moved, thus shifting the 
fulcrum of the link, would not other variations in the gear be in¬ 
troduced thereby? 

A.—The resetting of the link fulcrum might be just what was 
needed to perfect the whole valve motion if it had been set up untrue; 
but it might be that while adjusting the location of the link fulcrum 
would square the valve, by the radius rod at the link center, with the 
reverse lever in a working notch, there would be unequal cut-off by 
the valve still, for the difference made by this change would have to 
be borne by the eccentric rod and to finally true up the motion it 
might have to be lengthened or shortened as required. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


93 


Q. 47.—Give directions for adjusting the length of the eccentric. 

A.—Set the engine with the crank pins on the forward dead 
center, and have the reverse lever moved from the corner notch in 
forward gear up to the center of the quadrant, and if the valve stem 
is moved forward at all while the radius rod is rising the eccentric 
rod should be lengthened; or, if the valve stem is drawn backward as 
the radius rod is guided upward by the link the eccentric rod needs 
shortening. In either case, of course, the alteration should be by 
degrees, each one very slight and tests constantly repeated, until 
drawing the reverse lever from the corner up to the center notch will 
impart no movement whatever to the combination lever and the 
valve stem. For a general test try in the same manner and alter if 
necessary the eccentric rod on the other side of the engine, but 
starting the test with the crank pin on the back dead center. 

It is a fundamental principle of the Walschaert gear that the mo¬ 
tion work forward of the link, including the link bearer, is perma¬ 
nently set up and supported by rigid attachments to the guides, 
guide yoke and cylinder casting; the eccentric rod, however, repre¬ 
sents the unstable distance between the rigidly carried gear and the 
main driving wheel, and as this distance will vary from wear in the 
driving boxes, the length of the eccentric rod should be tested as 
directed, occasionally, and if necessary, shortened or lengthened. 

Q. 48.—Why is it so important that the Walschaert motion work 
should be supported by attachments in rigid connection with the 
cylinder casting? 

A.—Any style of valve motion is designed to simply furnish a sort 
of reciprocating action between the piston and the valve; both work 
in practically the same body casting and are in permanent alignment, 
and the motion of one will be transmitted without error to the other 
if the associated arrangement of gear that develops the transmission 
is solidly attached to the body occupied by the piston and valve; in 
the common erection of the Walschaert gear the motion work is 
borne at but three supporting points—the link fulcrum, the reversing 
shaft, and the valve stem slide; the first two are carried on brackets 
attached to the guide bearer, or yoke, and the valve stem slide is 
either mounted on the upper guide bar or the slide bar is connected 
to the cylinder body at one end and to the guide yoke at the other. 
Therefore the accuracy of the Walschaert gear is not affected by the 
roll and twisting effect of an engine in motion. 

Q. 49.—Besides furnishing a practically perfect locomotive valve 
motion, is not the Walschaert gear more desirable in other ways? 

A.—Yes; in many ways; the absence of heating is a great feature, 
and as the whole motion work is outside of the engine frame a chance 
for perfect inspection is furnished, every part can be easily and 
economically oiled, and in case of breakdowns in the gear repairs can 
be most quickly made, as there will be no necessity for getting under 
the engine; and the removal of the gear from inside the frame offers 
a fine opportunity for better frame bracing, and at the point where 
most needed on the large engines now in service. 



94 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 50.—When an engine equipped with the Walschaert gear 
becomes disabled on one side while on the road, is there any con¬ 
siderable difference in the methods employed in getting the engine in 
condition to proceed than if the Stephenson motion was employed? 

A.—A great deal of difference. Enough to make it worth while 
taking up the several points of possible derangement. Some details 
are the same, however, in all cases—blocking the valve, for instance, 
may be done in the same way whenever necessary, and in the same way 
whether either type of valve gear is used, etc., and while a breakdown 
in the Stephenson motion work is quite common it doesn’t frequently 
happen to the Walschaert gear, and engine failures are seldom 
charged to that account, but when a breakdown does occur repairs 
can be much quicker made to the Walschaert gear, exposed as it is, 
outside the frame. 

Q. 51.—“Blocking the valve” has been mentioned; what is meant, 
arid when and how should it be done? 

A.—In almost every case of an engine becoming disabled so that 
the cylinder power can not be used on one side, if the engine is to 
proceed under her own steam by the power of the other side the valve 
on the disabled side should be placed in an exactly central position on 
its seat; the words “exactly central position” are to be taken lit¬ 
erally, for it is not only to have both admission ports covered so 
that no steam can enter the cylinder, but because in that position 
both ends of the cylinder will be in communication with each other 
through the exhaust cavity of the slide valve, or through the passage 
in the spool of the piston valve of inside admission—this, of course, 
with valves having exhaust lead. 

After the necessary disconnections of the motive and valve gear 
have been made the valve on the disabled side of the engine must be 
centered by moving on the valve stem and judging from its travel 
when correctly centered; a better way, with the Walschaert gear, 
however, is if the radius rod is not damaged have it placed at the 
center of the link—by putting the reverse lever in its center notch, 
if possible, and then fixing the combination lever in its central 
position so that its two upper connection pins are on a vertical line 
with each other; the valve will then be exactly centered. 

After it is seen that no steam will blow from the opened cylinder 
cocks on the broken-down side with the throttle slightly opened, 
however, the valve is practically centered, but in any case it is best 
to disconnect the cylinder cock rigging on that side so that the cocks 
can be left permanently open and permit those on the other side to be 
worked at will, in order to afford relief against compression in the 
cylinder from the travel of the piston if the main rod is left up, in 
place, and also for detection in case the valve should get shifted off 
center by showing steam at one of the cocks; some engineers prefer 
to unscrew and remove the cocks entirely. When the cylinder is 
fitted with plugs for indicator connections their removal will obviate 
the necessity of disconnecting the cylinder cock rigging. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


95 


On many roads a clamp is carried on each engine to secure the 
valve stem immovably with and fix the valve on the correct center 
in case of breakdowns, but where such clamp is not at hand it has 
been generally the custom to raise the steam chest cover, where a 
D-slide valve is concerned, and place retaining blocks in front and 
behind the valve, wedging them in, and so secure it in position; but 
it is out of the question to try to raise the cover of the steam chest on 
one of our big, modern engines and it is safe enough, under the charge 
of a watchful, competent engineer, to omit the actual blocking, for, 
after the valve has been centered, when steam is used its pressure on 
the unbalanced area of the slide valve will be great enough to hold it 
beyond any danger of moving, except in case of bumping up against 
cars, and then the engineer will be warned by the steam from one of 
the open cylinder cocks. An advantage in not permanently securing 
the valve is that, where the main rod has not been taken down, if 
the live side should stop on the dead center the valve on the disabled 
side could be moved by the stem off center, to open the proper 
admission port, and steam then used to move the engine just far 
enough to get the working side off the center, stopping at the right 
moment with the air brakes, and then with steam shut off the valve 
can again be centered. 

Piston valves of inside admission are perfectly balanced, fore and 
aft, and without blocking will usually remain centered by the pressure 
of the steam setting out the packing rings against the walls of the 
valve chest. 

In times past engineers have been disciplined for not disconnecting 
the main rod on the disabled side of the engine and allowing the 
piston to churn in the cylinder; now, however, the weight of the main 
rod makes taking it down on the road prohibitive, and it has been 
found that no trouble need result from leaving it up if the engineer 
understands his business; if he does, he will let the lubricator feed 
to the steam chest on the disabled side as usual and at certain stops, 
if the valve is not blocked inside the steam chest, he will move it far 
enough to uncover one of the admission ports (even if not necessary 
to do so to work the other side off the dead center) and open the 
throttle slightly to blow the accumulated oil into the cylinder. 

Q. 52.—With the Stephenson gear when the main rod is left up 
on the disabled side of an engine its motion can not affect any part 
of the valve gear, but with the Walschaert type of gear would it not 
give impulse to the combination lever, and should not the combi¬ 
nation lever then be taken down? 

A.—Through the crosshead motion would be imparted to the 
combination lever, but it need not be taken down, for its motion 
should not affect the valve, on account of disconnections made 
elsewhere in the gear. 

Q. 53.—Whenever a valve is “blocked” or centered, it must be 
disconnected of course, from any part of the gear that would impart 
motion to it, and with the Stephenson link motion the valve stem is 



96 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


the general point of disconnection; would that be the recommended 
practice in connection with the Walschaert gear? 

A.—No; it is inconvenient and unnecessary to disconnect the 
Walschaert valve stem—inconvenient, because there is no joint 
between the valve and the slide that carries the end of the valve 
stem, and unnecessary, for the reason that the radius rod must 
always be disconnected when the valve is blocked, and that removes 
the fulcruming point of the combination lever. For a lever to 
transmit motion it must have three points for the reception and 
transmission of power, and with the radius rod removed the com¬ 
bination lever is left with only the crosshead connection at the lower 
end and its upper end connected to the valve stem slide, the latter 
acting as a fixed suspension point for the pendulum-like swing of the 
combination lever in unison with the strokes of the piston. 

Q. 54.—As the disconnection of the radius rod takes the place of, 
and with the same effect, as disconnecting the valve stem of the 
Stephenson link motion, it will be frequently referred to in the 
following answers to questions relating to breakdowns, and to avoid 
repetitions explain once for all, in detail, how it should be done. 

A.—In many cases the radius rod will not need to be removed; 
where there is but a short distance for the engine to go, or it may be 
run slowly, remove the pin from point of radius rod and combination 
lever and raise the front of the rod above any chance of interference 
with the lever, suspending the front end of the rod by strong rope or 
wiring of a length that will permit it to swing freely to the motion of 
the link without striking anything; then just center the valve in the 
manner already described and proceed slowly. This method, of 
course, is only to be resorted to where it is merely desired to get to 
the nearest siding with the engine, which must be run very slowly or 
the radius rod will kick-off the running board. 

If it is desired to so fix up the disabled side of an engine that she 
can use the power of the other side to finish the run and make the time 
with what she can pull in safety, set the reverse lever in the center 
notch in order to center the link block, in which position the link can 
give no motion to the radius rod; then fit a block of wood within the 
link slot and under the link block to support the latter, and dis¬ 
connect the suspension bar from the radius rod, and also from the 
lifting arm if it will be in the way of the swing of the link; disconnect 
the front end of the radius rod from the combination lever and raise 
and secure it as before mentioned, but with a shorter suspension, as 
there will be no swing to it now. The slot above the link block should 
also be filled in with a piece of wood to prevent the link block from 
jumping up from the center and giving a thrust to the radius rod. 
It is not absolutely necessary to block within the link slot, as wooden 
pieces may be fitted under and over the radius rod, between its jaws 
and the ends of the link bracket, but in this case the ends of the pieces 
that are in contact with the radius rod must be rounded to roll 
against it as the link swings. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


97 


The radius rod having been disconnected from the combination 
lever, the motion of the lower end of the lever will have no effect 
on the valve, which may now be centered and secured—or trusted to 
“stay put” as heretofore explained. As the engine starts to move 
watch closely the motion of the combination lever during the first 
revolution of the driving wheels, to see that it does not strike the 
pin connecting the main rod with the crosshead, as the relative 
positions assumed by this pin and the combination lever are changed 
by the removal of the influence of the radius rod. 

Q. 55.—If the eccentric rod of the Walschaert gear should break, 
what should be done? 

A.—Remove the broken parts, and drop the reverse lever to the 
go-ahead corner notch; then disconnect the suspension bar from the 
radius rod on the disabled side of the engine, permitting the link 
block to rest at the bottom of the link, and disconnect the radius rod 
from the combination lever, raising the front end of the radius rod 
above any chance of interference and securing it there in order to 
keep the link from swinging. Center the valve in the prescribed 
manner and proceed. 

Q. 56.—What should you do in case of a broken valve stem? 

A.—The radius rod should be centered securely in the link, dis¬ 
connected from hanger and combination lever and wired up at the 
front end as previously explained; then center the valve in the 
recommended manner and block, or otherwise secure, the valve stem 
slide against any movement on the slide bar that might be caused by 
the swing of the combination lever, as it has not the frictional re¬ 
sistance of the valve to hold it in a fixed position, now, but be sure to 
place the slide at a point where the combination lever will be carried 
without striking the pin that connects main rod and crosshead. 

Q. 57.—How would you get along with a case where the radius 
rod was broken forward of the link? 

A.—Would remove all parts of the broken rod, disconnecting same 
from the suspension bar and combination lever, and also from the 
link block, unless there was a long enough piece left attached forward 
of the link to permit of wiring it up and securing the link block in the 
center of the link, which could be done in that case. Center the valve 
in the mannqr referred to and go on. But under any circumstances 
in which the radius rod has been disconnected always remember the 
importance of seeing that the combination lever will swing clear of 
the wrist pin in the crosshead, and that the suspension bar will be out 
of the way of the swing of the link. 

Q. 58.—If the suspension bar should break, or, where it is con¬ 
nected to an extension of the radius rod beyond and back of the 
link if that extension of the radius rod should break, what should be 
done? 

A.—In either case place the reverse lever in a notch of the quad¬ 
rant that will give the valve an everage cut-off, or in which it may 
be continuously worked—forward or back gear, according to the 



98 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


direction in which the engine is to run—raise the radius rod with the 
broken piece, or hanger, until the link block is at the same height in 
the link as the one on the other side of the engine, and insert a piece 
of wood in the link slot under the link block to hold it up, and another 
piece above the link block to keep it from slipping up. Remove the 
broken parts and proceed, remembering not to reverse the engine nor 
to change the reverse lever to another notch. 

Q. 59.—What should be done in case the combination lever, or the 
vibrating link that connects it with the crosshead, should be broken? 

A.—If the combination lever is broken disconnect and remove all 
pieces that are not in connection with the valve stem slide; if it be the 
long arm of the combination lever that is broken, or the vibrating 
link, take down the vibrating link also, and if the piece of lever re¬ 
maining attached to the valve stem slide is long enough to be in the 
path of the pin in the crosshead, either remove the piece or draw it 
out of the way and secure it there. Center the valve and disconnect 
the radius rod, both as heretofore explained, and go on. 

Q. 60.—In all of the cases so far it has been understood that the 
main rod has been left in place; suppose, however, that the main rod 
should be broken, compelling its removal—what ought to be done? 

A.—After taking down the broken parts of the main rod and 
disconnecting the radius rod, if the valve is of inside admission, push 
it to the forward end of the steam chest and clamp the valve stem 
or block the valve stem slide to secure it in that position; with a 
valve of outside admission draw it to the back end of its travel and 
secure it there; the idea is to hold the forward port open for steam 
admission against the front of the piston, and the back port open 
from the opposite side of the piston to the exhaust; the crosshead 
should then be drawn back until the piston is against the back 
cylinder head. This is called “steam blocking,” for when steam is 
used it will hold the piston in its fixed position. Then you can go on, 
but after drifting any distance, shut off, use steam carefully at first 
for fear the piston may have also drifted forward a little way in the 
cylinder and will be pounded back to the head too severely; it is 
better, therefore, to fasten a piece of wood to fit in the guides ahead 
of the crosshead. 

Q. 61.—Engines with the Stephenson link motion are totally 
unfitted to run under their own steam if but one section of side rod 
should break when it happens that the eccentrics are mounted on a 
different axle than the one worked directly by the main rod, and if 
the broken side rod is the one connecting the wheels of the eccentrics’ 
axle with the wheels carrying the main rod on either side of the engine. 
Could the breaking of any section of side rod, only, have the effect 
of completely disabling an engine equipped with the Walschaert 
valve gear? 

A.—No; the eccentric of the Walschaert gear is always mounted 
on the main pair of wheels—the wheels worked directly by the main 
rod—and therefore the removal of all sections of side rods on both 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


99 


sides of the engine could in no way affect the valve motion. If, 
however, any one section of the side rod should break, the corre¬ 
sponding section of rod on the other side of the engine should be taken 
down; the only result from doing so will be to make the engine more 
slippery and very hard to hold to the rail—if equipped with the Wal- 
schaert valve gear. 

Q. 62.—If the piston should be broken, or loose from the piston 
rod in the cylinder, what repairs are required? 

A.—Commonly the result of this accident is to tear off, or break, 
the front cylinder head, but the head should be removed whether 
injured or not, and the piston extracted from the cylinder; if the 
piston rod is not bent disconnect the radius rod and center the valve 
in the prescribed manner—except that of course the cylinder cocks 
will not need to be fixed open nor taken out on the disabled side—and 
move on. 

Q. 63.—In case of a bent piston rod, what should be done? 

A.—Take down the main rod, disconnect the radius rod in the 
regular manner and center the valve securely. Use your own judg¬ 
ment as to blocking the crosshead—the piston and rod will usually be 
so cramped as to make blocking unnecessary. 

Q. 64.—In the too common case of blowing out a front cylinder 
head, what should you do? 

A.—Disconnect the radius rod and center the valve, both by the 
instructed method, except that in this case if the fixed-open cylinder 
cocks will not afford relief for the compression from the piston’s 
back stroke it is only necessary to remove one—the back—cylinder 
cock; or better still, where there is one, unscrew the indicator plug 
from the back end of the cylinder. In this case of running with the 
main rod up one of the objectionable features in doing so is removed— 
the general lack of facilities for oiling the piston in the cylinder—for 
with the front head off oil can easily be introduced. 

When the back cylinder head is broken, it is best to proceed as 
directed in the case of bent piston rod. 

Q. 65.—If disconnection of the radius rod in the Walschaert 
gear has the same effect as disconnecting the valve stem of the com¬ 
mon link motion, then the radius rod will have to come down when¬ 
ever the engine is so disabled on one side that the valve must be 
blocked; so you will explain in detail how one should go about it. 

A.—The radius rod need not be taken down in all such cases of 
disability, but will always have to be, at least, disconnected. 

Remove the pin from the joint of radius rod and combination 
lever and raise the disconnected end of the radius rod just above 
any chance of interference with the combination lever, suspending 
the rod by strong wiring or rope of such length as to permit it to 
swing freely to the motion of the link, taking particular care that 
the suspended end of the radius rod will not strike anything else. 
This method should only be resorted to, however, when the engine 
has only a short distance to go to reach its terminal and can be run 



100 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


at a moderate speed only. In answer to subsequent questions on 
breakdowns, the following instructions for disconnecting the radius 
rod should be observed: 

If the engine is to be run any considerable distance, or may be 
speeded up at times, with one side disabled, a safer and more com¬ 
mendable method is, first, place the reverse lever in the center notch 
of the quadrant in order to get the back end of the radius rod and the 
link block in the exact center of the link; then saw a couple of pieces 
of wood to fit, and insert them between the bottom of the link and 
the link block, and secure them in position in order to support the 
back end of the radius rod at the center of the link; now disconnect 
the hanger between lifting arm and radius rod and take out the pin 
from the front end of the latter at its connection with the combina¬ 
tion lever, wiring the radius rod up, as previously directed, or sus¬ 
pending it by anything that will support its weight, as there will 
be no motion imparted to it now. After centering the valve, and 
blocking it or clamping the valve stem—or trusting that the pres¬ 
sure of the steam will hold it in its central position— it will not be 
necessary to do anything with the combination lever, as the motion 
imparted to its lower end will not be likely to affect the valve, even 
if not clamped; but,—after disconnecting the radius rod from the 
combination lever, always watch the first movement of the cross¬ 
head to see that the combination lever does not strike the wrist pin — 
the pin by which the front end of the main rod is connected to the 
crosshead—as the motion of the lever is altered by the disconnection 
and pause of its upper end. Blocks of the proper size to hold the 
radius rod in the center of the link, and with their upper ends shaped 
half round, should be carried on all engines equipped with the Wal- 
schaert valve gear. 

Q. 66.—What is meant by the above expression of the mainpin 
being on the “working quarter”? 

A.—When the mainpin is on the actual quarter—either the upper 
or lower—it is on a perpendicular line through the center of the 
axle, but the piston will not be in the exact center of the cylinder, 
owing to the angularity of the main rod. On the other hand, if the 
piston is at the true center of the cylinder—as was supposed in the 
foregoing question—the mainpin will be a slight distance away from 
the perpendicular line through the center of the wheel, or axle, but 
it is now on the working quarter because, technically, it has half 
completed a single stroke; if the back end of the main rod should 
now be disconnected from the mainpin and dropped, or raised, as the 
case demands, until it was on a horizontal line, the opening for the 
mainpin in the sub end of the main rod would center, exactly, over 
the center of the wheel hub, proving that it was half-way in its stroke. 
The longer the main rod the less its angularity, and the lesser will 
be the difference between the actual and the working quarter posi¬ 
tions of the mainpin. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


101 


Q. 67.—Describe the Walschaert link in detail. 

A.—The reversing links used in connection with the 'Walschaert 
gear by different engine builders, and on locomotives of different 
types, vary somewhat in design; some are open links nearly like 
those of the Stephenson link motion, but generally they are very sim¬ 
ilar to the one illustrated. 





































102 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


The piece that forms the link proper, and has the slot that holds 
the link block, is extended down much further than the slot, in order 
to take the eccentric rod connection as near as possible to the hori¬ 
zontal line through the wheel’s center, this lower extension forming 
the link foot; the link piece is shown in side elevation A as la, and 
in end view B as lb; it is forged from wrought iron and case-hardened. 
The frame that carries the link piece is composed of the two bracket 
pieces 2b, in view B, one on each side, with their ends bolted to the 
link piece; they are of cast steel, each including the fulcrum pin 3b 
by which the link is suspended and which are designed to be even 
with the center of the link slot, both vertically and horizontally ; a 
case-hardened bushing of wrought iron is pressed onto these link 
trunnions, or fulcrum pins, in order to prevent any lost motion 
from wear. The pin hole in the link foot, J^a, 4b, to which the eccen¬ 
tric rod is connected, is also fitted with a wrought iron, case-hardened 
bushing. In view A, the slot in the link piece in which the link 
block operates is in dotted outline, as indicated by 6a, 6a, and the 
link block is shown in the views C and D; C is the side of the block 
and as it would appear if raised to its position in the link slot in the 
view A, and the edge of the block is shown in view D as it would lie 
in the link turned to the endwise view B, and when in place in the 
slot the sides of the block are almost flush with the sides of the link 
piece to afford room for the jaws of the radius rod to pass inside of 
the brackets; the hole 8c, 8d, is for the pin by which the radius rod 
is attached to the link block, and this hole, like the others, is also 
bushed with case-hardened wrought iron. 



The Baker Valve Gear* 


The Baker Valve Gear is an outside radial gear, i. e., it has no 
links or sliding blocks. The movement is derived from the cross¬ 
head and the eccentric crank. The crosshead moves the valve the 
amount of the lap and lead each way, and the eccentric crank gives 
the remainder of the movement. In the short cut-offs the actual 
effect of the eccentric crank is reduced, while the crosshead move¬ 
ment is constant. 

The bearings are all pins and bushings, the latter being ground 
inside and out to a standard gauge. The pins are case-hardened 
and ground to size on both the bearing and tapers. 

No loose oil cups are employed; each bearing has an oil reservoir 
or cup which is made integral with the part. These cavities can be 
filled with waste or curled hair to retain the oil, obviating the dan¬ 
ger of a bearing running dry on the longest runs. All these bearing 
pins and bolts are exposed to view so that they can be got at to be 
removed by the engineman or repairman. Three pins, or two pins 
and a bolt, remove the hardest piece to be taken down. The heavi¬ 
est piece, the bell crank, weighs only 86 pounds. 

Standardization of Parts. This has been reached to some extent 
in the Baker Gear as all the outside admission gears of this make are 
alike and all the inside gears are the same, no matter what the type 
or class of engine upon which used. The yokes and radius bars are 
also the same for both admissions. The combination lever must 
suit the stroke of the engine and the lap and lead. Since there is 
not enough difference in the power it takes to operate a valve on dif¬ 
ferent modern engines it does not warrant different sized gears. 
With other gears there is not much, if any, difference in the cross- 
section area of the same part on the different engines. All parts 
are interchangeable, and the castings, including the frame, are the 
same for both sides of the engine, except the gear connection rod. 
The combination lever has rights and lefts, but they are drop-forged. 

The frame is one piece cast steel, the same casting on both sides 
of the engine; one type for inside admission and another type for 
outside admission. The frame is designed with an extension so that 
the same frame will go on a variety of engines. This reduces to the 
minimum the number of kinds of frames that any road may have. 
So far two designs of outside and one design of inside admission 
frame have been used. 

Alignment. Every part of the gear is symmetrical with respect 
to the center line of the gear, and all pins are supported on each end. 
This makes a straight line motion, and prevents the possibility of a 
twisting effect on any part. This construction is claimed to increase 
the strength of the gear and also the wearing quality of the bearings. 


By courtesy of the Pilloid Co. 



c * 


104 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


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ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


105 


Lead and Preadmission. The Baker Gear has a constant lead 
with a variable preadmission. The objections to a constant lead 
have been that it retarded the engine while running in full gear and 
did not give compression enough in the short cut-offs. 

It makes no difference what lead there is in full gear so long as 
there is not preadmission, which is the factor in compression. In 
full cut-off the Baker Gear has practically no preadmission and the 
indicator cards show a low compression line. This means a “quick” 
engine. 

As the cut-off is shortened, the preadmission increases, and at 
25 per cent there is from %-inch to ^ 5 -inch preadmission. 

Fig. 2 shows in a general way the action of the Baker Gear for 
outside admission. On an inside admission gear the bell crank 
stands ahead of the reverse yoke, and point L for the connection of 
the valve rod is below point K instead of above. The eccentric 
crank follows in both cases. 

The circle AD is the path of the crank pin. Circle BB f is the 
eccentric crank circle. ADX is the main rod. DX is the crosshead. 
DXN is the crosshead arm. MN is the union link. MKL the com¬ 
bination lever. KJG the bell crank. The gear connecting rod is 
GEC. EF shows the radius bar. HI is the reversing yoke. 

The two movements of the gear are as follows: One from the 
eccentric crank B which follows the main pin at about 90 degrees. 
The other motion from the crosshead through the combination lever. 
The eccentric crank moves the radius bar and the action the radius 
bar has on the valve is controlled by the reverse yoke. The radius 
bar and yoke take the place of the link and block of a link motion. 
The combination lever throws the valve the amount of the lap and 
lead, the same as in the Walschaert Gear. This makes the lead con¬ 
stant and independent of the cut-off. Having a constant lead, the 
valve should show lead opening in all cut-offs when the engine is on 
either dead center. 

The cut-off, release, and compression is done by means of the 
eccentric crank and controlled by the reversing yoke. The yoke 
controls the length of the cut-off and also reverses the engine. The 
action is as follows: Eccentric crank in going from B' to B moves 
point C from C'- 1 to C"-j. By this movement it moves pin E'- x 
through H to E"- x . The particular path of E is an arc whose radius 
is E'- l F- 1 . Thus it will be seen that EF causes point E to rise. 
This rising movement moves G from G - 4 to G- x which, by means of 
the bell crank, moves K from A - 4 to K- x . This, it can be seen, will 
move the valve forward. The valve is moved backward to its original 
position in the next half turn of the wheel. The peculiar action of 
the combination lever is not shown. As the combination lever does 
its important work near the dead center of the engine, and when the 
engine is in the position as shown in the diagram the combination 
lever is as shown on the diagram. 



106 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 




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OUTSIDE ADMISSION 
































































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ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


107 




INSIDE ADMISSION 

























































108 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


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ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


109 



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110 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


From the diagram it will be noticed that E has a rising and falling 
movement, caused by the radius bar EF. If the yoke is changed 
from /-! to 7-2, it would change the center of the radius F. So that 
E will move from E'- 2 to E"-^ \ in other words, the rising and falling 
movement is cut down, which would move G from G- a to G- 2 and K 
from K- 3 to K- 2 . Thus it will be seen that with the varying position 
of the yoke 7 the amount of movement of the valve varies. When 
7 is in the mid-gear position E would not move up and down at all, 
but simply swing back and forth in an arc. If 7 is put in full back¬ 
ward motion, the same motion of the eccentric crank that caused 
the rising movement before would cause the falling movement in the 
back motion, -and E would go from E"- A to E'- A . The full motion 
backward is shown by a dotted line and the short cut-off in back¬ 
ward motion by dash and three dots. 

Instructions on Setting the Baker Gear. Connect up the gear, and 
check the throw of the reverse yoke, also clearance at all points, 
with the eccentric crank clamped temporarily to the main pin, but 
as near as possible to the specified throw. Locate the dead centers 
in the usual way. 

Eccentric Crank. With the engine on the front dead center, tram 
from the center of the pin in front end of eccentric rod to any sta¬ 
tionary point, such as the guide yoke or guides, as shown by tram 
points A and B, Fig. 5. (In most cases the wheel tram can be used 
for this work.) After scribing a line across the side of the main guide 
with the A end of the tram, revolve the wheel to the back dead cen¬ 
ter and scribe the guide again; if these two lines are together the 
crank setting is correct. If they are not, knock the eccentric crank 
in or out until they do. The position of the reverse lever is not im¬ 
portant while finding the eccentric positions. After the valve setter 
has had sufficient experience, the location of the eccentric can be 
determined while obtaining the dead centers. 

Valve Travel. Put the reverse lever in full forward motion po¬ 
sition and test the full travel. If there is a difference between the 
right and left sides of the engine, lengthen the gear reach rod on the 
side of the engine where the short travel exists. After obtaining 
the same travel on each side of the engine in this manner, the re¬ 
verse lever should be put in its central position and the main reach 
rod adjusted until the dimensions shown on Fig. 6 are obtained for 
mid-gear position; then the quadrant length should be tested for the 
desired travel in both full forward and back motions. 

Eccentric Rod Length. The inside admission gear is direct in the 
forward motion and indirect in the back motion and the ratio of the 
gear is 4 to 1, therefore the valve will move forward A " if the ec¬ 
centric rod is lengthened " with the lever in the extreme forward 
motion and the engine on dead center. If the lever is in the extreme 
back motion the valve will move back rs " when the rod is lengthened 
)4". Having taken the port marks with your standard valve stem 
tram, take the lead openings in both motions as shown by Fig. 7, 
which shows eccentric rod too long for inside admission. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


111 


B 

T fQRwftRD 
MOTION l_E«OS 



If you shorten the rod and take the lead points again, the 
valve will be shifted back in the forward motion until lead line A is 
at E and lead line B is at F, and in the back motion the valve will be 
shifted ahead until the lead line C will be at E and lead line D will 
be at F, which will make the condition as shown by Fig. 8. 

After obtaining leads as shown by Fig. 8, the length of the valve 
rod should be adjusted, making G and H equal. After the setter 



has had some experience the valve rod and eccentric rod alterations 
can be made after one revolution of the wheels. Referring back to 
the paragraph on Eccentric Crank Setting, which can be checked 
from the stem (see Fig. 7), on which the distance between A and B 
on the horizontal line of the stem is equal to C and D, this will always 
be the case when crank setting is correct, whether the eccentric rod 
shows long or short. 

If the eccentric rod is % " too short and the crank setting correct, 
the full gear lead lines will come as shown by Fig. 9. 



BRCKr 











































































112 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 

































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


113 


After lengthening the rod y& 9 you will have the condition shown 
by Fig. 8. 

The foregoing includes inside admission only and alterations in 
the eccentric rod length should be opposite for outside admission valves. 

Valve Movements; General Information. The Baker Gear gets 
its motion from two points: the eccentric crank and the crosshead. 
The eccentric crank moves the radius bar and the action the radius 
bar has on the valve is controlled by the reverse yoke. The radius 
bar and the yoke take the place of the link and block of a link motion. 

The crosshead moves the valve the amount of the lap and lead 
each way. This makes the lead constant and independent of the cut-off. 

Having a constant lead, the valve should show lead opening in 
all cut-offs when engine is on either dead center. 

Eccentric Crank Setting. With the Baker Gear the eccentric 
crank always follows the crank pin. It stands the same for both 
inside and outside admission. 

Cut-off and Eccentric Rod. If the eccentric rod is off in length, 
you can tell it by the following rule: If cut-offs are long on front 
end in forward motion and long on the back end in backward mo¬ 
tion, the rod is too long. If the cut-offs come just the opposite of 
the foregoing, then the rod is too short. 

Breakdowns. Two means are provided for blocking the gear 
and valve in case of a breakdown. The valve stem crosshead is 
provided with a set-screw so that the valve can be blocked central 
over the ports by clamping the valve stem crosshead to its guide. 
This is done in case the breakage on the gear or engine disables one 
side. (See Fig. 12.) 

The other way of blocking is by bolting the lower arm of the 
bell crank fast to the side of the frame. After the valves have been 
set, the reverse lever is put in mid-gear and two holes are drilled 
through the frame. Any bolt that will go through the hole can be 
used. (See Figs. 10 and 11.) With the gear bolted in this manner 
the valve will get the lap and lead movement and a port opening 
equal to the lead for all cut-offs. This allows the following parts to 
fail and yet get the lap and lead movement: eccentric crank, ec¬ 
centric rod, connection rod, radius bars, reverse yoke, short reach 
rod and horizontal arm of bell crank. 

In case the union link or crosshead arm fails, it will be necessary 
to block the valve over the ports, tie the combination lever fast, and 
disconnect the valve rod; unless the construction of the engine is 
such that the combination lever can be secured in practically a 
plumb position. If the combination lever can be fastened, the valve 
will get the eccentric movement. The port opening would be re¬ 
duced and be closed in any cut-off shorter than 50 per cent. 

In case the combination lever fails, close up the bell crank, block 
the valve over the ports, disconnect the valve rod and tie the loose 
parts to keep them from doing damage. \ 

In case of engine breakage do the same as with any other gear. 



114 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


The Baker Valve Gear, like the Walschaert and other radial 
gears, readily lends itself to any change in design that may be neces¬ 
sary to suit the construction of the locomotive to which it is applied. 

In order that the action of this gear may be clearly understood 
with reference to the different types of valves used, we must, first 
consider those with the gear illustrated as in Figs. 3 and 4. The 
fulcrum point of the combination lever is its connection to the 
lower end of the bell crank, while on the later type of gear the ful¬ 
crum point of the combination lever is where it is connected to the 
valve rod. In both instances this fulcrum is movable; in other 
words it does not occupy the same position at all points of the stroke. 
As explained previously, the combination lever gives the lap and lead 
travel; that is, it moves the valve so that it has traveled the amount 
of the lap and the lead at the beginning of each end of the stroke. 

Referring to Fig. 3, as the combination lever obtains its move¬ 
ment from the crosshead, it is evident that when the crosshead is 
traveling forward carrying the lower end of the combination lever 
with it, the upper end of the combination lever must be traveling 
back, and the proportions of the combination lever are so arranged 
that when- the crosshead is at its .extreme forward position, the 
upper end of the combination lever has been pulled back the amount 
of the lap and the lead of the valve, thereby placing the valve in 
position to admit steam ahead of the piston to force the piston back. 
When the crosshead is at the other end of its travel, that is, at the 
back end of the guides, the upper end of the combination lever would 
be moved forward the amount of the lap and the lead, thereby 
placing the valve in position to admit steam back of the piston. 
In the view shown, the valve rod makes a direct connection with 
the valve stem and consequently imparts to the valve the same 
movement, that is, a movement in the same direction as that im¬ 
parted to the valve rod. 

If, still referring to Fig. 3, the valves were of the inside admission 
type, and the valve rod connected as before, it is plain that with 
the crosshead at its extreme forward travel, which would throw the 
top end of the combination lever back, the back steam port would 
be open instead of the front one, consequently the engine would 
not move. For this reason where inside admission valves are used, 
the valve rod must be coupled below the fulcrum point as shown 
in Fig. 4, in order that when the crosshead is at the extreme forward 
end of its travel, the connection point of the valve rod will also be 
carried forward, thereby moving the valve forward and uncovering 
the front steam port. 

With the later type of the Baker Gear, as previously explained, 
the forward end of the valve rod, which in this case corresponds 
with the radius rod of the Walschaert Gear, forms the fulcrum point 
of the combination lever same as the combination lever connection 
to the bell crank as shown in Figs. 3 and 4; while the valve stem 
proper is connected direct to the combination lever, same as the valve 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


115 


rod is connected in the figures mentioned. A study of this motion, 
therefore, shows that the first movement imparted to the valve is 
that given by the crosshead through the combination lever, the 
remainder of the movement being imparted by the eccentric crank 
through the bell crank. To make this clear imagine in Fig. 3, which 
shows the reverse lever in forward gear, that the reach rod was pulled 
back so the reverse lever would occupy the center of the quadrant; 
this would then throw the reverse yoke connections in line with the 
bell crank connection and the only effect that the eccentric crank 
would have would be to oscillate the radius bars forward and back 
without imparting any material movement to the bell crank, and as 
the valve obtains its movement from the movement of the bell 
crank and the combination lever, it is clear that the only material 
movement imparted to the valve under these conditions would be 
that given by the combination lever, which would be equal to twice 
the lap and twice the lead. 

Throwing the reverse lever into forward gear places the radius 
bars in an angular position and therefore they can not oscillate as 
before without rising up and down; as they are so connected, how¬ 
ever, as to prevent any up and down movement, it follows that the 
movement of the eccentric crank instead of being imparted to the 
radius bars only, in this instance would be imparted to the bell crank, 
causing the forward end of the bell crank in Fig. 3, and the back 
end in Fig. 4, to move up and down. This would cause the lower 
end of the bell crank to move forward and back, thus imparting 
additional motion to the valve through the valve rod. 

This explanation is deemed necessary in order that engineers 
will clearly understand the different movements, so that in case of 
failure of any one of the parts of this gear, they would know how to 
disconnect, what to disconnect, and how to block the remaining 
portion of the. gear to get a valve travel on the disabled side. On 
the later type of Baker Gear there is practically nothing that could 
break which would prevent obtaining some valve travel, with the 
exception of a valve stem. On the type of gear herein illustrated 
there is practically nothing that could break which would prevent 
obtaining a valve trawel with the exception of the valve stem, valve 
rod, or lower end of bell crank. 

Breakdowns. Beginning at the rear end; in case the eccentric 
crank, eccentric rod, or the lower end of the gear connecting rod 
should break, the only movement that could be imparted to the valve 
would be that of the combination lever, and as the combination 
lever is fulcrumed to the bell crank, it is plain that the bell crank 
must first be secured in a rigid position so that all the movement 
imparted by the crosshead to the combination lever would be im¬ 
parted to the valve, as otherwise were the bell crank not secured, the 
chances are the bell crank would move instead of the valve rod. 
On the type of gear herein illustrated you will notice two holes 
through the gear frame, Figs. 10 and 11; these holes are for the 



116 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


purpose of fastening the bell crank in case of failure of any of the 
parts previously mentioned, the bell crank being secured to the 
gear frame by means of a U-bolt placed in these holes. 

The short reach rod connecting the reverse or tumbling shaft 
arm to the reverse yoke should also be disconnected at one end 
and the reverse yoke thrown forward against the gear frame in order 
to get it out of the way. This would then give the full valve travel 
on the good side of the locomotive but only a travel equal to the lap 
and the lead on the disabled side and a port opening on the disabled 
side equal to the lead opening. 

With an engine disconnected in this manner, you should be careful 
not to stop with the good side on the dead center as, if the good side 
is on the dead center, the disabled side would necessarily be on the 
quarter and in this case the combination lever would be straight up 
and down, and’ the ports covered on the disabled side, making this 
side powerless, and as the good side of the engine would be on the 
dead center, that side would naturally be powerless also and the 
engine would not move. Should you happen to stop in this position, 
however, the engine could be gotten off the center on the good side 
without the necessity of pinching by disconnecting the lower end 
of the combination lever from the union link, and moving the com¬ 
bination lever in the right direction to uncover the port that would 
allow the engine to move in the direction desired, as for instance, 
if the engine stopped with the good side on the forward dead center 
with the other side on the upper quarter, and it was desired to move 
in a forward direction, the combination lever should be swung so as 
to uncover the back steam port on the disabled side. After the 
engine had been moved off the dead center on the good side, the 
combination lever should be coupled up again. 

With the new type of gear’ there are no holes provided in the 
gear frame for the purpose of fastening the bell crank, but the 
bracket is so cast that wooden wedges can be driven on either side 
of the bell crank to hold it in position. 

If the gear connection rod should break below the pin where 
it is fastened to the gear frame, it would of course be necessary to 
disconnect the eccentric rod, then block same as for broken eccentric 
rod or crank. If the gear connection rod should break above the 
pin, the eccentric rod could be left up, proceeding with the balance 
of the operation same as for broken eccentric rod, etc. 

In case the union link or the combination lever should break, 
two methods could be employed. The combination lever together 
with the union link could be removed and in many instances the 
valve rod could be connected direct to the bell crank at the point 
where the combination lever was formerly connected. If this could 
not be done and the failure was of the union link or of the combina¬ 
tion lever at a point below its connection with the bell crank, the 
union link, if broken, should be removed, or the union link and that 
portion of the broken combination lever should be removed, the 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


117 


remaining part of the combination lever placed so it would hang 
straight down and then either wedged or clamped in such a position 
that it could not move on its fulcrum point on the bell crank. This 
would then allow the eccentric crank to impart a motion to the valve 
equal to the difference between the motion imparted by the eccentric 
crank only and that imparted by the combined movements of the 
eccentric crank and the combination lever. The port openings 
would naturally be reduced and it would be necessary to work the 
engine in practically full stroke in order to get any opening on the 
disabled side. With an engine disconnected in this manner no port 
opening would be obtained on the disabled side at the beginning of 
the stroke. 

With the type of gear herein illustrated, in case of failure of the 
valve rod, the engine would naturally be disabled on that side; it 
would not be necessary to disconnect anything, however; simply 
remove the broken parts if they are liable to interfere, clamp the 
valve central on its seat and make the usual provision for lubricat¬ 
ing the cylinder. This can be done by either taking out cylinder 
relief valves, in case the cylinder is provided with them or slacking 
off on the front cylinder head. With the newer type of gear, however, 
even in case of a failure of the valve rod you could still obtain a 
port opening and work steam on the disabled side by first removing 
the engine so that the crosshead on the disabled side would be at 
the center of its stroke, that is, with that side on the quarter, then 
disconnect the disabled valve rod and cut a piece of plank long 
enough to reach from the back end of the steam chest to the guide 
yoke; cut a notch through this plank that will fit over the upper 
end of the combination lever; fasten it securely in place. This will 
act as a fulcrum point for the combination lever and give you the 
lap and lead travel. There would be no need of disconnecting any 
other portions of the gear. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
BAKER VALVE GEAR. 


Q.—What portion of the travel of valve is controlled by the 
crosshead movement on a Baker Valve Gear? 

A.—The movement of valve controlled by the crosshead motion 
amounts to the combined lap and lead of the valve. This movement 
is constant, regardless of position of lever. 

Q.—When the position of reverse lever is changed with engine 
working, what part of the motion of Baker Gear is affected? 

A.—That part which receives its motion from the eccentric 
crank, which may be cut out altogether by placing reverse lever on 



118 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


center. The position of lever has no effect whatever on the motion 
of valve imparted to it by the crosshead movement, 
y Q.—Is the Baker Valve Gear a direct or indirect motion? 

A.—That depends on whether the valves are inside or outside 
admission. With inside admission valves the gear is direct in for¬ 
ward motion and indirect in back motion, and is the opposite when 
outside admission valves are used. 

Q.—If an eccentric rod or crank on a Baker Gear should break, 
what could be done on the road to still use part of engine on disabled 
side? 

A.—The thing to do is cut out that part of the gear to which the 
eccentric rod is connected. The eccentric rod is connected to the 
gear connection rod at bottom, and the motion given to this rod is 
imparted to the bell crank, which is connected at the upper end of 
this rod, when the reverse yoke is in any but its dead center (vertical) 
position. If the bell crank is to be cut out it must be placed in the 
dead center position and blocked there. The modern Baker Gears 
have two holes in gear frame which register with holes in bell crank, 
and a couple of bolts put through these holes will hold the bell crank. 
After this is done the valve will be operated only by the crosshead 
movement, which moves the valve the amount of the lap and lead 
only. The next thing to do is disconnect back end of short reach 
rod; there being no further use for the reverse lever on the disabled 
side (which, with the bell crank locked, would prevent the use of 
the lever anyway) and move the reverse yoke over against gear 
frame out of the way. 

You are then ready to go. The power on the disabled side will 
not be much, but it is a “fix up” quickly done and permits the proper 
lubrication of valve and cylinder, which in itself is worth while. 

Q.—In what does the Baker gear differ from the Walschaert? 

A.—In the manner in which the cut-off is regulated and the engine 
reversed. 

Q.—How is this accomplished in the Baker gear? 

A.—By means of a reverse yoke instead of a link. 

Q.—Through what parts does the valve obtain its movement with 
the Baker gear? 

A.—Through the combination lever from the crosshead and 
through the eccentric crank connected to the main crank pin. 

Q.—What movement is imparted to the valve by means of the 
combination lever? 

A.—That necessary to overcome the lap of the valve and give 
the lead desired. 

Q.—Is the lead given by the Baker valve gear constant or variable? 

A.—It is constant. 

Q.—What do you understand by preadmission? 

A.—It is the act of admitting steam or having a port open before 
the piston reaches the end of its stroke. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


119 


Q.—With the Baker gear is the preadmission constant same as 
the lead? 

A.—No; preadmission is variable, increasing as the cut-off is 
shortened. 

Q.—What would be the effect of pre-admission with an engine in 
full gear? 

A.—It would have a tendency to retard the movement of the 
engine; also in a measure decrease its starting power. 

Q.—Does this same objection obtain when an engine is worked 
in a short cut-off? 

A.—No; preadmission in this case acts as a cushion for the 
reciprocating parts. 

Q.—How can you tell at a glance whether an engine equipped 
with a Baker gear has an inside or outside admission valve? 

A.—By the manner in which the valve rod is connected to the 
combination lever; an engine having an inside admission valve has 
the valve rod connected below the point at which the combination 
lever is attached to the bell crank, and one having outside admission 
valves has the valve rod connected above this point. 

Q.—Is there any difference in the setting of the eccentric crank 
for the inside and outside admission valve? 

A.—No; the eccentric crank always follows the main pin. 

Q.—How should the different bearings of the Baker gear be 
lubricated? What kind of oil should be used? 

A.—Bearings should be lubricated by filling the pockets or cav¬ 
ities cast in all the movable parts and connecting with the bearings; 
these pockets should preferably be kept full of curled hair in order 
to assist in retaining the oil and to prevent grit and other abrasives 
getting into the bearings. Engine oil only should be used. 

Q.—Why not use valve oil in lubricating these bearings? 

A.—Because owing to the limited movement of the bearings there 
is no tendency on their part to run hot, and valve oil being thicker 
than engine oil would not flow around the bearings as readily and 
consequently might cause the bearings to seize. 

Q.—What would you do in case of failure of the eccentric crank, 
eccentric rod, or lower end of gear connection rod? 

A.—Disconnect broken parts and remove such portions as are 
liable to interfere; disconnect the short reach rod; fasten the bell 
crank in its central position and proceed on both sides. 

Q.—With an engine disconnected in this manner, what port 
opening would you get on the disabled side? 

A.—A port opening equal to the lead. 

Q.—With an engine disconnected in this manner what precautions 
should be taken in stopping? 

A.—To see that the engine did not stop with the good side on the 
dead center. 

Q.—Why is this precaution necessary? 



120 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Because in this case, the good side being on the center would 
be powerless, and the disabled side being on the quarter would place 
the valve in its central position covering both ports, consequently 
no steam would be admitted to the cylinder on the disabled side and 
the engine would not move. 

Q.—In case an engine disconnected in this manner, did stop with 
the good side on the dead center, could the engine be moved 
without pinching? If so, how? 

A.—Yes; by disconnecting the lower end of the combination lever 
and moving the valve so as to obtain a port opening. 

Q.—With an engine disconnected in this manner and the disabled 
side on the quarter, why could not a port opening be obtained by 
placing the reverse lever at full gear either forward or back? 

A.—Because in the first place the reach rod is disconnected 
on that side, and in the second place, if the reach rod were not 
disconnected, the reverse lever would have no influence on the valve 
movement as the only movement given to the valve would be 
that imparted by the crosshead. 

Q.—What should be done in case the gear connection rod broke 
above the point where it was fulcrumed to the gear frame? 

A.—Proceed same as for a broken eccentric rod or crank, except 
in this case it will not be necessary to disconnect the eccentric rod. 

Q.—What should be done in case of a broken radius bar? 

A.—Handle same as for broken eccentric rod or crank. 

Q.—What should be done if the upper or horizontal bell crank 
arm should break? 

A.—Handle same as for broken eccentric rod. 

Q.—What should be done in case the lower or vertical arm of the 
bell crank broke? 

A.—With the type of gear here illustrated this failure would 
totally disable the engine on that side. All that would be necessary 
to disconnect, however, would be the combination lever, union link 
and valve rod; then clamp the valve to cover the ports and make 
the usual provision for lubricating the cylinder. With the later 
type of gear, disconnect the valve rod, then fasten the top of the 
combination lever by means of a plank extending from the steam 
chest to the guide yoke. 

Q.—What would you do in case you broke the crosshead arm, 
union link or lower portion of the combination lever? 

A.—Remove the broken parts that are liable to interfere. If in 
case of a broken union link or crosshead arm, the combination lever 
can be fastened so that it can not move, do this and proceed with a 
full train. If the combination lever is broken near its connection, 
however, or can not be fastened, connect the valve rod direct to the 
bell crank in place of the combination lever if possible; if not, wedge 
or clamp the upper end of the combination lever to the bell crank in 
such a manner that it can not move and proceed with a full train. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


121 


Q.—With an engine disconnected in this manner, how much valve 
travel will be obtained on the disabled side? 

A.—About two-thirds of the usual travel. 

Q.—With an engine disconnected in this manner at what cut-off 
should the engine be worked to secure any power on the disabled 
side? 

A.-The engine should be worked at practically full stroke, if 
cut back to less than half stroke no port opening would be obtained 
on the defective side. 

Q.—What do you do in case of a broken valve rod? 

A.—Where the valve rod is connected from the combination lever 
direct to the valve stem crosshead, the engine would be disabled on 
that side and should be handled accordingly. There would be no 
need to disconnect anything however, except the valve rod. Where 
the valve rod forms a connection between the bell crank and the' 
combination lever, and the combination lever is attached to the 
valve stem crosshead, a lead opening could be obtained by fastening 
the top of the combination lever. 

Q.—What would you do in case of a broken reverse yoke? 

A.—In case the yoke is broken at the short reach rod connection, 
take down the short reach rod and block the yoke securely at the 
cut-off in which it is necessary to work the engine. If the break in 
the reverse yoke is below the suspension point or lugs, proceed the 
same as with broken eccentric rod or eccentric crank. 



Southern Locomotive Valve 

Gear" 

While it is a radical departure from all previous outside gears, it 
is a gear that can be adapted to any class of locomotives, both inside 
and outside admission, and is designed with the view of eliminating 
roundhouse repairs and delays to power incident thereto. It is a 
well-known fact that there is a derangement in the valve movement 
.on all outside radial gears, due to the change in the angularity of the 
main rod as the engine settles. This valve gear has been so designed 
as to practically eliminate this objectionable feature. 

Transferring from a rotary motion to a reciprocating motion is 
accomplished by direct movements and on straight lines, doing away 
with strains and distortions found in other valve gears in common use 
to-day. The links being located in a horizontal position and being 
stationary, entirely does away with wear at this point, as the block 
only moves in the link when the reverse lever is moved to adjust 
cut-off or reverse gear. The link being stationary also eliminates 
what is known as the slip in the link block, found in some outside 
gears. There are but eight possible points of wear on each side of an 
engine or a total of sixteen points of wear per locomotive, this being 
less than half contained in other gears. 

This gear will practically do away with engine failures due to 
breakage of valve gear parts. The different parts are so balanced as 
to reduce the wear on the pins and bushings to a minimum. The 
forward end of the eccentric rod is supported by bell crank hanger, 
which has at its top two bearings spaced widely apart, thus absolutely 
preventing any side slap on eccentric rod. 

This valve gear is designed to eliminate all stress and strains on 
reverse lever and reach rod connections. The reverse lever is easily 
handled with one hand while engine is working under full steam 
pressure. This feature appeals very strongly to the engineer as it 
enables him to adjust his cut-off without fear of the reverse lever 
getting away from him and will induce him to work as short cut-off 
as possible, resulting in the saving of fuel. This valve gear will 
stand hard usage that it is bound to get under heavy freight service, 
as has been proven in a series of dynamometer car tests. 

Directions for Setting and Adjusting Southern Locomotive Valve 
Gear .—The dead centers are found in the usual way, and the valve 
gear assembled according to elevation, with eccentric crank of proper 
length and set so that the pin travels in an 18-inch circle and the 

* By courtesy of Southern Locomotive Valve Gear Co. 



COMPLETE SOUTHERN LOCOMOTIVE VALVE GEAR* 




































































































124 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


reverse shaft arms stand vertical while the reverse lever is in center 
position of quadrant and the link set in position shown on the eleva¬ 
tion, and securely clamped; also that the auxiliary reach rods have 
been adjusted to bring the link block in the center of the link while 
the reverse lever is in middle position. 

Diagram shows an ideal valve gear, with all parts of proper 
dimensions and properly located and adjusted. This gear will have 
a uniform lead at both front and back ports. 

Full lines show the position of eccentric crank for outside admis¬ 
sion, and dotted lines show the same for inside admission. 

For outside admission, the eccentric crank leads the main crank 
pin, but for inside admission, it follows the main crank pin. 



The Schmidt Top Header 
Type Superheater 

Which is in most general use on railroads in the United States. 
We will illustrate and explain this type as it will probably be of more 
value to my readers than any other. Referring to Fig. 2 it will be 
seen that the superheater proper consists of a number of superheater 
units, each unit being made up of four pieces of seamless steel tubing 
about \}/2 inches O. D., and all of which are located in the upper 
portion of the boiler, having their back end swaged down to 4^ 
inches O. D., to secure better circulation of water next to the tube 
sheet. The seamless steel tubes are connected by cast steel return 
bends to form a continuous tube, as shown in Fig. 4. To insure the 
proper flow of steam through these units, the special Superheater 
Header, shown in Fig. 5, is provided, which takes the place of the or¬ 
dinary “Tee” or “Nigger” Head. 

This header is so designed with internal walls that the steam 
entering it from the dry pipe must pass through the passages marked 
“W” to the tubes of the superheater units where it is superheated. 
On leaving the units, the superheated steam is returned to the header, 
on the opposite side of the partition walls, to the passages .marked 
“S,” connecting it with the steam pipes and steam chests. 

The direction of the steam flow in a superheater locomotive is 
indicated by arrows in the dry pipe, header, superheater units, and 
steam pipes of Figs. 2 and 3 and in the header, Fig. 5. 

The Ball Joint Connection between the superheater unit and the 
lower face of the header is made with a single bolt centrally located, 
as shown on Figs. 2, 3, and 4. In making these ball joints, the ends 
of the superheater tubes are machined, and the bored collars which 
form the ball joints driven out. They are then welded and turned 
to their spherical form. The ball joints and their seats in header are 
ground steam tight. 

To protect the ends of the superheater tubes next to the fire 
against overheating when there is no steam flowing through them, 
especially when the blower is on, it is necessary to stop the flow of 
hot gas through the large flues. This result is secured by separating 
the front end of the superheater units from the rest of the smoke box 
by means of a vertical partition plate located just in front of the 
superheated body, extending across the smoke-box and from the top 
of the smoke-box down to the back edge of the table plate. From the 
bottom edge of this partition a horizontal plate, reaching across the 
smoke-box, extends back to the tube-sheet just below the large flues. 

This horizontal plate contains an opening which is closed by the 
superheater damper, Fig. 6. 


B UNIT 



Fig. 2 Schmidt Top Header Superheater. Ball Joint Tube Connection. 




























































































































































































OET'AIL Of 

SUPERHEATS* TUBE JOINT 




















































































































































































































128 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


The vertical partition is so designed that the portion between the 
header and table plate consists of three or four plates. These plates 
are equipped with handles, and by raising them slightly they may be 
removed and thus permit free access to the superheater units and 
header. Hand holes are also provided in the sides of smoke-box for 
inspection of superheater parts from the outside without opening the 
smoke-box door. 

The superheater damper is held open by pressure of steam from 
the steam chest acting on the piston in the damper cylinder, and 
permits hot gases to flow through the superheater flues. It is closed 
by a weight or a spring as soon as the steam is but of the steam chest, 
and stops the flow of hot gases through the large flues. 

On opening the throttle, the steam passes through the dry pipe 
and, on reaching the header, is forced through the passage “W” to 
the various units forming the superheater. On leaving the super¬ 
heater units the steam is delivered to the passages “S,” from which 
it passes to the steam pipes and steam chests. On reaching the 
steam chests, it passes automatically, to the superheater damper 
cylinder through the connecting pipe. The steam pressure acting on 
the piston of the superheater damper cylinder opens the damper, and 
this permits the free flow of hot gases from the fire to the smoke-box 
through the large boiler flues which contain the superheater tubes. 

A part of the heat of the gases flowing through the large flues is 
absorbed by the surrounding water. Another portion is absorbed 
by the tubes of the superheater units and transmitted by them to the 
steam passing through them and superheating it. 

In order that the gases with the cinders which they carry with them 
may meet with the minimum of obstruction in their flow through 
the large flues, the return bends of the superheater units are provided 
with lugs which raise the tubes of the superheater units from the 
bottom of the flues and permit a practically free and unobstructed 
flow of the gases under and between the tubes forming the unit. 



Fig. 4. Schmidt Superheater Unit. 


































ENGINBMEN’S MANUAL 


129 


On closing of the throttle the steam passes from the steam chest 
and at the same time from the superheater damper cylinder through 
the pipe connections, allowing the weight on the damper shaft arm 
to automatically close the damper, thus stopping the flow of hot 
gases through the large flues when there is no steam passing through 
the superheater units. 

Under certain conditions of service, such as switching, etc., 
where service is intermittent, another form of the automatic acting 
superheater damper cylinder is sometimes used. This form permits 
the superheater damper to remain open at all times except when 
the blower is on, when it is closed by steam from the blower pipe. 

The amount or degree of superheat is the increase of the final 
temperature of the steam leaving the superheater over that of the 
steam and water in the boiler. For example, steam at 200 pounds 
gauge pressure has a temperature of 387.5 degrees F. on entering 
the dry pipe. On leaving the superheater suppose it has a temper¬ 
ature of 600 degrees F. In that c.ase it has been superheated in 
its passage through the superheater by an amount equal to the 
difference of 600 and 387^, i. e., 212^ degrees F. 

To secure the best results the quantity of heat absorbed by the 
superheater units should be sufficient to superheat the steam to an 
average temperature of 600 degrees F. 



Fig. 5- Schmidt Superheater Header. 


For cleaning the flues the use of air of at least 100 pounds pressure 
should be used. It should be applied through a 3-inch gas pipe, 
which is inserted at the back end of the flue and gradually worked 
forward under the superheater unit, blowing the dirt out of the 







































































































130 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


front end of the flue. The use of air for blowing out the boiler flues 
is recommended in preference to steam or water. 

In case steam is used instead of air for blowing out the flues, the 
boiler should be under steam to avoid the condensation of water in 
the flue, as it would be liable to mix with the ashes, etc., and form a 
coating on the inside of the large flues. The superheater damper 
should be open in all cases while cleaning the flues. 

The superheater units and header are in the top portion of the 
boiler, symmetrically located, and will not interfere with work in the 
smoke-box. 

The design of the unit and arrangement of the front end presents 
the least obstruction to the free flow of gas from the fire through the 
smoke-box to the stack. 

The design permits the use of external steam pipe connections 
to the cylinders, and this reduces the obstruction offered by the 
ordinary type of saturated engines. 

When necessary to remove the small flues in the bottom portion 
of the boiler they may be taken out without removing the super¬ 
heater parts. 

No extra joints are required in the steam pipes and the existing 
joints are rendered more accessible than on a saturated engine. 

Each individual unit can be disconnected from the header by 
loosening a single bolt. 

The joint between the unit and header is the ball joint, which 
permits easy removal and replacement of units. 



Fig. 6. Schmidt Superheater Damper. 

































ENG-INEMEN’S MANUAL 


131 


The minimum number of shapes of superheater tubes is required, 
as every unit in each horizontal row is exactly alike. 

The usual stresses in the cylinder casting, due to difference in 
temperature between the live and exhaust passages, are reduced 
through the use of external steam pipe connections, which remove 
the hot steam from the saddle. 

Inspection of the superheater tubes and joints, boiler flues and 
front tube sheet, which can be made without removal of any of the 
superheater parts, should cover examination for air and steam leaks 
in front end, for any accumulation of cinders and ashes or deposits on 
return bends in boiler flues. 

All air and steam leaks should be stopped. In the case of steam 
leaks between the header and the superheater units, joints should be 
immediately tightened, if necessary regrinding ball joints or applying 
a new gasket to flat joints. In case a new gasket is applied the joint 
should be tightened again after the gasket has been under steam heat 
the first time. 

Suitable handholes are provided in the sides of the smoke-box so 
that the superheater can be inspected by means of an electric flash 
light without opening the smoke-box door. 

The flues can be easily inspected from the front while a light is 
held at the fire-box end. 

At regular intervals the boiler flues should be blown out the same 
as the boiler tubes are blown out, and thoroughly cleaned of all ashes, 
cinders, and soot. At the same time any deposit which may have 
accumulated on the return bends nearest the fire-box should be 
broken off and removed. 

Every two months the superheater, the steam and exhaust pipes 
should be tested with warm water of about working pressure to make 
sure that all joints, etc., are tight in front end. The return bends at 
fire-box end should be examined from fire-box end at this test. In 
setting the flues the prosser is used in preference to the roller when¬ 
ever possible in working over the superheater flues. The prosser 
should not have less than twelve sections, and the rollers not less 
than five rolls. Inserting plugs in the regular tubes surrounding 
superheater flues when using roller has proved good practice. 

The superheater damper and rigging should work freely, and the 
damper should be wide open when the throttle is open and there is 
steam in the damper cylinder. With no steam in the damper cylinder 
the damper should be closed. 

The damper should be closed when the blower is used for firing up. 

The piston rod extension should be inspected at regular intervals, 
and have extension guide adjusted to maintain the piston central 
in the cylinder. 

When handling the engines about the engine house, yards, etc., 
before the cylinders are warmed, the cylinder cocks should be kept 
open until dry steam appears. 



132 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Operation. The general operation of the superheated steam 
locomotive is the same as the ordinary saturated steam locomotive. 

Cylinder cocks should be kept open when starting until dry 
steam appears. 

In starting, the reverse lever should be put in full gear to insure 
oil distributing the full length of the valve bushing. 

In general, superheated steam locomotives should be operated with 
full throttle and short cut-off, when working conditions will permit. 

On account of the larger diameter of cylinders used in super¬ 
heater engines, the throttle must be opened slowly and special care 
taken to prevent slipping of the drivers. 

The firing should be light and regular to produce as high a flame 
temperature and as perfect combustion as possible in the fire-box. 

A smoky fire has a lower flame temperature, reduces the degree of 
superheat, and uses more coal. 

The engineer should know that the superheater damper is open 
while using steam and closed when steam is shut off. 

If the engine does not steam freely make sure that the super¬ 
heater damper is open. 

Leaks in the front end or superheater units, flues stopped up, and 
derangement of draft appliances not only affect the steaming of the 
engine, but reduce the degree of superheat and should be reported 
and corrected at once. 

Blows in cylinder and valve packing should be reported and 
receive proper attention, as they will cause scoring, due to removal 
of oil from wearing surfaces. 

Repairing. When the engine is in for general repairs the super¬ 
heater parts should be carefully cleaned, examined, and all defective 
parts should be repaired or replaced. 

The superheater units should be painted with a thin coat of hot 
tar as soon as cleaned to prevent rusting. 

The ball joints should be reground and joint should show a good 
continuous bearing all around the ball. 

With the flat gasket type of joint between header and superheater 
units the flange on the unit should come up parallel to the face of 
header so that the gasket has only to make the joint and does not 
have to take care of any angle between the flange and header. 

In replacing the superheater units it is essential that they be 
properly located in the top of the flue to prevent obstruction to the 
flow of gases through the flue. 

In locating the superheater header, its face for superheater unit 
joints should be square with the tube sheet, parallel to the top row 
of flues and the correct distance above them to insure correct position 
of the superheater unit in the flue. It should be firmly supported at 
the ends by Header Supports securely fastened to the sides of the 
smoke-box. 

The Joint Ring between the header and dry-pipe should have a 
flat and ball face to permit free adjustment of the header. 

On reassembling, the superheater should be subjected to same 
water tests as boiler. 



ENQINEMEN’S MANUAL 


133 


DON’TS ON SUPERHEATERS 

Don’t expect too much of the superheater; it is not intended to 
overcome blows or stop steam leaks or square valves, and it is like 
some children—won’t keep itself clean. 

Don’t forget when switching that there is more steam between 
the throttle and cylinders with the superheater than with the satu¬ 
rated steam engine—the superheater holds some. 

Don’t carry water too high just because you don’t hear any in 
the smokestack. You might be using your superheater to boil 
water instead of heating steam. 

Don’t think because your engine steams that you are getting the 
full value of the superheat; your engine may not be calling for the 
capacity of your boiler. 

Don’t close your throttle entirely on road engines until you get 
to going quite slow; your cylinder lubrication will be much better. 

Don’t fire your coal too wet; it won’t clinker so badly if reason¬ 
ably dry. The more you rake the fire the more the flues will stop up. 
There are only two reasons why a fire should be raked; one, because 
too much coal is used, and the other because it is not put in the right 
place. 

While there is a great difference in coal, there is not as much dif¬ 
ference as in what YOU are able to get out of it. They tell us of 
the high number of heat units or B. T. U.’s in certain coal; what 
does that amount to, to us, if we are not able to catch them, harness 
them up, and use them to our advantage? 

These don’ts apply with equal force to the handling of engines 
that are not equipped with superheaters. 



Engine Failures and 
Breakdowns 


THE LOCOMOTIVE AND 
ADHESION 

Q.—What is a locomotive engine? 

A.—A locomotive is two steam engines placed on wheels, equipped 
with the mechanism necessary to move itself on rails and to haul 
trains of cars. 

Q.—What are the principal parts of a locomotive? 

A.—The principal part of a locomotive is the boiler which is 
carried on substantial frames that also carry two cylinders that 
transmit power generated in the boiler, as steam to the driving 
wheels secured in the frames. With an eight-wheel engine there are 
two pairs of driving wheels coupled together by side rods and a 
four-wheel truck supporting the front end of the engine. The 
cranks of the driving wheels are set at right angles with each other 
so that when one crank is on the dead center the other will be trans¬ 
mitting the maximum power. Power is transmitted to the driving 
wheels by main rods that extend from the piston connection in the 
crossheads to the crank pins. Nearly all road locomotives have a 
tender attached which carries the necessary supply of fuel and water. 

Q.—What would you do should your engine become disabled 
while out on the road? 

A.—In case a locomotive becomes disabled while on the road, 
proceed at once to protect your train in accordance with the rules 
and regulations, then notify the proper officials and prepare the 
engine as far as possible with the means at hand, to be towed in. 

Q.—Can a train be handled with one side of locomotive disabled? 

A.—That depends on the physical characteristics of the road and 
the nature of the disablements of the engine, as well as the class of 
locomotive to which the injury occurs. With the lighter class of 
locomotives and level roadbeds, with the side rods up, 50 per cent or 
more of a train can be handled, but with an unfavorable grade or 
with side rods down the engine will do no more than to handle itself. 
The heavy modern locomotive will do no more than handle itself 
without side rods up, as with only one pair of drivers to furnish the 
adhesion to propel the whole weight of the locomotive it will stand 
and slip and will not handle itself to a terminal. 

Q.—How do the engines of a locomotive transmit their power 
to the driving wheels? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


135 


A.—The power exerted by the steam pressure on the piston head 
is transmitted by medium of the piston rod, crosshead, wrist pin, 
and main rod to the crank pin, which is located on the outside of 
the driving wheel between the hub and the outer edge of the wheel. 
This arrangement makes a crank lever of the pin and gives a rotary 
motion to the wheels, propelling the locomotive and its load in the 
direction indicated by the position of the reverse lever. 

Q.—When is there the greatest danger of damage to the machinery 
from an engine slipping, when running at a high or low rate of speed? 

A.—At a low rate of speed, because at a high rate of speed the 
revolutions of the wheels are not increased so much over normal 
as when slipping at a low rate of speed. 

Q.—Upon what is the power of a locomotive to do work dependent? 

A.—On the energy it can exert to produce motion without the 
driving wheels slipping, and is dependent on the adhesive power of 
the locomotive. This power is proportional to the weight on the 
driving wheels. 

Q.—How may adhesion be increased or diminished? 

A.—Increased by the use of sand, which makes the friction 
greater, and lessened by a wet or frosty rail, which reduces the 
friction. Sand on a wet rail will give about the same adhesion that 
a dry rail would have without the use of sand. If the sand lever 
is opened wide and too heavy streams of sand are run on the rail, 
friction will be greatly increased on the train wheels and a train 
“ stalled /’ that could have been pulled with a lighter use of sand, 
besides exhausting the supply sooner than necessary, which is 
limited to the none too great capacity of the sand box. The frequent 
opening and closing of the sand valves will give the best result on a 
hard pull, for if the valves are left open just a little, to run fine 
streams of sand, they will speedily close up and the wheels will slip. 
The quantity of sand that will give the requisite adhesion with the 
least train friction is what is desired. 

Q.—Is there anything aside from a “bad” rail that will cause 
wheels to slip? 

A.—Yes. Too great cylinder power for the adhesion of the wheels. 
This condition is not intended to exist. A small driving wheel will 
slip with the same cylinder power more easily than a larger wheel, 
because greater leverage is exerted. 

Q.—On what is the tractive power dependent? 

A.—The length of the stroke, area of piston, average mean effec¬ 
tive steam pressure and diameter of driving wheels. 

Q.—Are you acquainted with the rule used for calculating the 
tractive power of a locomotive? 

A.—I know the rule that reads: Square the diameter of one 
cylinder in inches, multiply the product by length of stroke in 
inches, multiply that product by 85 per cent of the boiler pressure 
in pounds and divide the product by the diameter of the driving 
wheels in inches. 



136 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—Put that problem into figures. 

A.—22 X 22 = 484 X 28 = 13,552 X 170 = 2,303,840 -r- 72 = 31,998, 
the tractive power from which 10 per cent is subtracted for friction. 

Q.—What do you understand the expression tractive power to 
mean? 

A.—The power which the engine exerts upon the drawbar to haul 
a load. 

Q.—Is the whole tractive power of a locomotive exerted in ordi¬ 
nary working? 

A.—No. The figures given represent the haul the engine would 
be capable of exerting while starting a train or hauling on a slow 
heavy pull. 

Q.—When that engine is pulling a heavy train at a speed of 60 
miles an hour, about what would be the tractive power exerted? 

A.—Running at 60 miles an hour, that engine whose drivers are 
72 inches diameter would make 284.5 revolutions per minute and 
would open the ports for steam admission and exhaust 569 times, 
which would leave about one-tenth of a second for steam to enter 
the cylinder. Under these circumstances the mean effective pres¬ 
sure, as it is called, inside the cylinder would be about 40 pounds 
per square inch instead of 170 pounds available in starting. So then 
the problem of that engine power would be 22 X 22 = 484 X 28 = 
13,552 X 40 = 542,080 -s- 72 = 7,528.8 pounds: As a passenger train 
running at 60 miles on a level track offers resistance of about 16 
pounds per ton of entire train, this engine ought to be capable of 
moving 470 tons, including the engine and tender at the speed named. 

(Figuring out these particulars for engines having different 
proportions is excellent practice for a person trying to learn the 
principles of locomotive engineering.) 

Q.—What is reckoned by engineers as one horse power? 

A.—The power applied in raising 33,000 pounds one foot per 
minute. 

Q.—How would you calculate the horse power of the locomotive 
whose tractive power has just been demonstrated? 

A.—By the following process: 

380.15 square inches of piston area of one cylinder. 

40 pounds mean effective pressure on piston. 


15,206.00 

4.66 feet piston travel each revolution. 


70,859.96 

2 cylinders. 


141,719.92 

284.5 revolutions per minute. 


40,318,317,240 -f- 33,000 = 1,221 horse power developed. 








ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


137 


Q.—What is the difference between the maximum and minimum 
power of a locomotive, and how can same be ascertained; also the dif¬ 
ference between maximum and minimum weight on driving wheels? 

A.—The maximum power of an engine is its greatest power, or 
highest drawbar pull it can develop. This is found by the aid of 
the dynamometer, an instrument connecting the tender of engine 
to be tested to the train. The dynamometer indicates the drawbar 
pull or tractive power just the same as scales indicate the weight 
of anything. The minimum power is never considered in the per¬ 
formance of an engine. 

The difference between maximum and minimum weight on driving 
wheels is the difference between the greatest and least weight on 
driving wheels of the different classes of engine. 

Q.—What is friction? 

A.—Friction is the resistance to motion offered by the surfaces 
of bodies in contact in a direction parallel to these surfaces. The 
action of friction is illustrated in railway work by the operation of 
brake shoes on wheels to stop trains; the friction between driving 
wheels sufficiently loaded and the surface of the rails enables the 
locomotive to exert much tractive force without slipping the wheels. 
Friction also resists the turning of an axle on its journal and makes 
tractive force necessary to move a train of cars. 

Q.—Upon what does the amount of friction between two bodies 
depend? 

A.—The amount of friction between two bodies in contact, 
depends on pressure, temperature, speed, kind of material, and the 
quality and quantity of lubricant used. Friction is nearly inde¬ 
pendent of the area of surface of an article to be moved. A brick 
will move as freely on a board or incline while resting on its side 
as when resting on its face. 

Q.—What is meant by the co-efficient of friction? 

A.—The proportion which the resistance to sliding motion bears 
to the force pressing the substances together. A smooth iron casting 
loaded to weigh 100 pounds will require a force of 15 pounds or 15/100 
of the weight to slide the plate upon another smooth plate. The 
co-efficient of friction is therefore said to be 0.15. 

Q.—What effect has the introduction of oil or other lubricant 
between rubbing parts? 

A.—It renders friction in proportion to the quantity and quality of 
the lubricant used. Tests with different lubricants showed that with 
tallow the co-efficient of friction was 0.1; with lard oil, 0.07; with olive 
oil, 0.064; with lard and graphite, 0.055, which proves that the amount 
of frictional resistance is greatly influenced by the lubricants used. 

Q.—What effect has pressure between the rubbing parts upon 
lubrication? 

A.—High pressure between, say, bearing and journal, has a ten¬ 
dency to prevent the lubricant from being efficient. The lighter 
the load the easier it is to apply lubricants to advantage. 



138 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—What effect has speed upon lubrication? 

A.^—When frictional parts, such as journals, crank pins, or eccen¬ 
trics move at high velocity, lubricating the parts effectually is much 
more difficult than it is when the speed is low or moderate. 


BOILERS 


Q.—What are the principal parts of a locomotive boiler? 

A.—The shell or cylindrical part to which is attached the fire¬ 
box in the rear and the smoke-box in front. The fire-box is a square 
or oblong box with outside and inside sheets forming a water space 
on all parts except the bottom, where the fire grates are situated. 
The sides and back sheets are secured to each other by stay bolts 
and the crown sheet is generally supported by radial stays secured 
to the outside shell. Sometimes the crown sheet is supported by 
crown bars that extend across the fire-box and rest upon the sheet 
seams at each side of the box. From the front of the fire-box an 
equipment of flue-tubes, each about two inches in diameter, con¬ 
veying the products of combustion to the smoke-box, thence to the 
atmosphere. 

Q.—What are the principal strains endured by a locomotive fire¬ 
box? 

A.—First, to the strains due to the high pressure of steam; sec¬ 
ond, to the strains that result from varying temperatures With the 
hot water on one side of the sheets and a hot flame or, perhaps, cold 
air on the other side. These changes of temperature act to lengthen 
or shorten the steel sheets, putting immense strains upon the ma¬ 
terial. Varying temperature of feed water also puts strains upon 
the fire-box. 

Q.—Why is the fire-box surrounded by water? 

A.—To prevent the hot fire from burning the sheets. The sur¬ 
face of the fire-box sheets, being exposed to the direct heat from 
the fire, forms a valuable steam making area. 

Q.—How is the bottom of the fire-box secured? 

A.—By a heavy ring made to conform to the shape of the fire¬ 
box. The outside and the inside sheets are riveted to this ring, which 
is generally called the mud-ring, because the mud that drops from 
the evaporated water settles there. 

Q.—What is below the mud-ring? 

A.—Attached to the mud-ring is a frame which supports the 
grates, and beneath the grates is the ash pan to catch the ashes that 
drop through. 

Q.—How many forms of boilers are in common use? 

A.—The straight boiler^ which has the top of the fire-box flush 
or on line with the top of the cylindrical part; the wagontop boiler, 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


139 


in which the top of the fire-box is raised considerably above the line 
of the cylindrical top; the Bellpaire boiler, which has the top of the 
fire-box flat. 

Q.—For what purpose is a dome placed on a boiler? 

A.—To provide the exit for. steam at a point considerably above 
the level of the water level, thereby tending to supply steam free 
from mixture of water. It also provides a convenient place for the 
throttle valve, for safety valves, and other attachments. 

Q.—In operating a locomotive, what is the most important duty 
concerning the boiler? 

A.—To keep a proper supply of water. 

Q.—What would happen if the crown sheet becomes bare of water 
when the engine was working? 

A.—If it became sufficiently hot, the crown sheet would be forced 
away from the stay bolt and an explosion might result. 

Q.—If you found that the water had fallen so low that the crown 
sheet was hot, what would you do? 

A.—Start both injectors. 

Q.—Is there any danger of damaging the sheets if water is poured 
upon them when hot? 

A.—No. Quenching hot sheets with water may make them leak, 
but there is no danger of fracture. 

Q.—What results from many of the flues becoming stopped up? 

A.—Every flue stopped up takes away an important part of the 
heating surface, with the result that when many flues are stopped up 
the steaming capacity of the boiler is impaired. 

It has been found on some roads that removing one or two of the 
bottom rows of flues has improved the steaming of engines. 

Q.—What is the purpose of placing the injector check valves near 
to the front end of the boiler? 

A.—The front end of the boiler is considerably cooler than the 
back end, and the coal gases keep cooling as they approach the-front 
end. When the feed water is injected close to the front end it pre¬ 
sents a heat absorbing medium to the cooling gases. 

Q.—How is the flat surface of the flue sheets prevented from col¬ 
lapsing under the great pressure upon them? 

A.—The flues, which are expanded or beaded at the ends, act as 
stays to strengthen the flue sheets. 

Q.—How is the boiler secured to the frames? 

A—At the front end of the smoke-box, which is an integral part 
of the boiler, it is substantially secured to the cylinder saddle casting, 
preventing any movement at that end. Then there is a cross brace 
at the back end of the crosshead guides which secures the boiler to 
the frames. The fire-box end of the boiler is secured to the frames 
in such a manner that there is fore and aft motion, but no side motion. 

Q.—What is the purpose of giving the boiler fore and aft motion? 

A.—To provide for the expansion and contraction of the boiler. 
It is longer when hot than it is when cold. 



140 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—What must be the condition inside the boiler to give the best 
results in steam making? 

A.—It must be kept as clean as possible, and as free from mud 
and scale as circumstances will permit. 

Q.—What is meant by an engine priming or foaming? 

A.—It is water mixed with the steam passing into the cylinders. 

Q.—What is the cause of priming? 

A.—Impurities passing into the boiler with the feed water. When 
an engine first leaves the shop priming may be caused by oil and 
grease left inside the boiler by workmen. 

Q.—What is meant by circulation in the boiler? 

A.—The water inside the boiler is always moving from one point 
to another, due to the action of the heating gases. That movement 
is called circulation. Circulation tends downward at the cooler 
parts and upwards close to the heating surfaces. It is strongest 
about the fire-box and arises from the steam rushing away from the 
sheets where it has been generated. 

Q.—What is the leg of a fire-box? 

A.—The parts extending down to the mud-ring. 

Q.—What happens when the leg of the fire-box gets filled with mud? 

A.—The sheets exposed to the fire get burned, so that they bulge 
between the stay bolts and are likely to crack. 

Q.—If the water became low in the boiler and the injectors failed 
to work, what should be done? 

A.—Quench the fire or smother it with earth or slack coal. 

Q.—Why is it necessary to provide extra support to a crown sheet? 

A.—The crown sheet, being flat or nearly so, has little resisting 
power to the steam pressure on top that tends to push it downward. 

Q.—In what way is the crown sheet generally supported? 

A.—Generally by stay bolts that tie it to the outside shell of the 
boiler. Some boilers have the crown sheets supported by crown bars 
that extend across the crown, with stay bolts securing the sheet to 
the bars. The bars are double, set on edge, with space between, 
through which the stay bolts pass. 

Q.—What objection is there to using crown bars instead of radial 
stays? 

A.—the crown bars add considerable weight where it is not 
wanted, and cause accumulation of mud and scale difficult to remove. 

Q.—How are the side sheets and the front and back sheets of a 
fire-box, which are all flat, prevented from bulging under the pres¬ 
sure of steam and water inside? 

A.—By being bound to the outside sheets by stay bolts. 

Q.—Can you tell when a stay bolt is broken? 

A.—No. To find broken stay bolts is the duty of a boiler in¬ 
spector or boilermaker, who has acquired special skill in doing that 
work. 

Q.—For what purpose are small holes drilled in the outside of 
stay bolts? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


141 


A.—To detect breakage of the stay bolt. When a stay bolt so 
drilled breaks water will leak through the hole. 

Q.—What are the principal causes of leaky flues? 

A.—Rapid changes of temperature is the most fertile cause of 
leaky flues. That may be produced by irregular boiler feeding or 
by defects of firing, such as leaving holes in the fire that admit cold 
air direct to the flues. This is made worse by reckless use of the 
blower when the damper is open. The rapid change of temperature 
that is most destructive to flues generally happens upon the cinder 
pit. When drawing the fire the blower is frequently kept on at full 
force, drawing a great volume of cold air into the fire-box, causing 
leakage of flues and fire-box sheets. 

Q.—How would you act to make the best of an engine having 
leaky flues? 

A.—Keep up as bright a fire as possible, feed the boiler regularly, 
and avoid the use of the blower, and keep the fire door closed as much 
as circumstances would permit. 

Q.—What causes scale to form upon the heating surfaces of a 
boiler? 

A.—Generally the solid matter held in solution in the feed water. 
Muddy feed water may also increase the scale. 

Q.—What is the effect on the economical operation of a locomotive 
to have the heating surfaces coated with scale? 

A.—Scale on the heating surfaces prevents the hot fire gases from 
imparting full vaporing service to the water inside the flues and the 
fire-box sheets^ so that they pass into the smoke-box at a higher 
temperature than they would if the heating surfaces were clean. 
In short, scale leads to waste of fuel. 

Q.—How much water should be in the boiler when an engine is 
given up at the engine house? 

A.—Three gauges or more. 

Q.—When should the boiler be filled with water at the finish of 
a trip? 

A.—While the engine is working its train. Rushing water into 
the boiler when engine is running from train to engine house is bad 
practice. 

Q.—What is the effect of leaky steam pipe joints inside the smoke- 
box? 

A.—Leaky steam joints in smoke-box are very detrimental to 
free steaming. 

Q.—How should the water be suppled to the boiler? 

A.—As nearly as possible at the rate it is being used, which can 
be found by keeping the water at the same level. Sometimes it is 
wise to have extra water to be prepared for a long, hard pull. At 
other times the injector may be freely used to prevent steam blow¬ 
ing off. 

Q.—What is the difference between priming and foaming of a 
boiler? 



142 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Priming and foaming both mean that water is being carried 
by the steam from the boiler to the cylinders, a dangerous condition. 
Priming generally results from the water level in the boiler being 
carried too high, or through forcing the engine to its full power; 
foaming is caused by impurities, such as grease, soap, or alkali, 
causing an aggregation of suds or bubbles that mix with the steam. 
Boilers that need washing out generally cause annoyance by foaming. 

Q.—Explain the difference between a “wide” and a “narrow” 
fire-box engine. 

A.—A wide fire-box engine has the fire-box widened out and set 
on top of the frames and extends out over the rear driving wheels, 
while with a narrow fire-box engine the fire-box is long and deep 
and fits in between the frames. 

Q.—Has the more recent or wide fire-box type any advantages 
over the narrow fire-box? If so, what are the advantages? 

A.—Yes. The^wide fire-box provides a much larger grate area 
than can be obtained with the narrow fire-box fitting between the 
frames, thus allowing a poor grade of coal to be burned. It is also 
easier to fire properly than a long, narrow fire-box. 

Q.—Describe in a general way the construction of a locomotive 
fire-box. 

A.—The fire-box is rectangular in form and consists of the back 
tube sheet (in front), the crown sheet (on top), the two side sheets, 
the door sheet (in back), and the grate at the bottom. It is secured 
to the back part of the boiler, and its sheets are surrounded by water, 
being separated on all sides from the outside shell by a distance of 
from 3 Y 2 to 4)^ inches; this space is called the water leg. The fire¬ 
box sheets are secured to the outside shell by means of stay-bolts 
screwed through both sheets. The bottom of the water leg is formed 
by a wrought iron or cast steel ring, called the mud-ring, to which 
the outside and the inside sheets of the fire-box are riveted. Below 
the grate is the ash pan, which is provided with dampers to regulate 
the supply of air admitted to the fire-box from underneath. The 
crown sheet is supported either by means of crown bars or radial stays. 

Q.—What is a stay bolt? 

A.—A stay bolt is a bolt, generally made of wrought iron, £ to 
1 inch in diameter. In some cases the bolts are threaded their whole 
length, and in others the threads are turned off the central portion. 
These bolts are screwed through the outer and inner sheets of the 
fire-box and the ends riveted cold. 

Q.—Approximately how many stay bolts are required in a fire¬ 
box of average size? 

A.—Considering the stay bolts proper, there are usually from 
about 800 to 1,100, depending upon the size and shape of the fire-box. 

Q.—What is the purpose of using stay bolts in a locomotive fire-box? 

A.—They form a support for the fire-box sheets by fastening them 
to the main shell of the boiler, and enable them to resist the strains 
to which they are constantly subjected when under pressure. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


143 


Q—(a) What would you do in case of a throttle becoming dis¬ 
connected while closed? 

(b) If while open? 

A.—(a) Would be governed largely by conditions; if on a busy 
main line, would be prepared to be towed in, while if on some branch 
line or at some isolated place, would reduce all pressure, remove the 
dome cap, and connect up throttle. If for a short distance, no 
preparations would be necessary for towing; if long distance and cold 
weather, the choke plugs could be removed from the lubricator and 
sufficient lubrication conveyed to the steam chest and cylinders 
without disconnecting; however, if it is the wishes of the road, the 
valve rods can be disconnected and the cylinders lubricated through 
the relief valves by blocking the valves in one end of the steam chest. 

(b) In the event of the throttle becoming disconnected while 
open, the pressure can be reduced to where the injectors will work 
properly and the engine and a few cars handled by means of the re¬ 
verse lever and brakes, or, if it is so desired, where we have a clear 
road the crew and despatcher may be notified and the full train 
handled into the terminal. 

Q.—Suppose you shut off and the water in the glass dropped out 
of sight, what would you do? 

A.—In the first place, when an engine is foaming badly, the 
throttle should not be closed entirely until the proper location of 
the water is ascertained. However, in the event of the water passing 
out of sight, the lever should be hooked up on the center, throttle 
opened, gauge cocks tested in an effort to locate the water. If the 
water cannot then be located, I would protect the fire-box by knock¬ 
ing or banking the fire. 

Q.—What would you do if, while out on the road, the blow-off 
cock would not close or should become broken off, or in case a wash¬ 
out plug should blow out? 

A.—-The first thing to do is to prevent the burning of your fire¬ 
box sheets, as the boiler will be emptied of water very quickly, and 
no time must be lost. Start your injectors and get your fire out in 
the quickest way possible, either by dumping it or smothering it. 
After the fire has been dumped or smothered and the pressure has all 
blown off from the boiler, there are two things that may be done: 
Either prepare to be towed in, or else, if the time permits and condi¬ 
tions are such as to make it possible, fit a plug into the washout hole 
or the hole where the blow-off cock screwed in, refill your boiler, and 
get in under your own steam. 

Q.—What would you do in case the grates should be burned out 
or broken while out on the road? 

A.—If the grates are only partially burned out, the hole formed 
can be stopped up with old fish-plates, bricks, or something similar, 
if any such material can be found. Sometimes it is possible to get 
hold of some ties and put them in the fire-box in such manner as to 
cover over the hole made in the grates long enough to get into clear. 



144 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


If there is no other means at hand and the ash pan is a shallow one, 
gravel or stones can be shoveled into the hole until a bank is made 
extending up to the grates. However, in case the grates are com¬ 
pletely out, there is no use of attempting to come in, and the fire 
should be dumped to prevent burning the ash pan completely up. 

Q.—What would you do in case a tube should burst or start leak¬ 
ing very badly? 

A.—It should be plugged, if practical. To plug a bursted flue, 
the pressure must be reduced sufficiently to allow working at it, and 
it may be necessary in some instances to cool off the fire-box suf¬ 
ficiently so that it can be entered. Some engines are provided with 
iron plugs and a plugging bar, which should be used if possible. 
Flues have been successfully plugged with a 2 x 4 scantling driven 
in from the fire-box door and left to burn off even with the sheet. 
The back end should be plugged first and then the front end. 

Q.—What would be the best method of testing for a leaky exhaust 
pipe joint or nozzle joint? 

A.—It is hardly practical to make a good test for leaky exhaust 
pipe joints or nozzle while on the road. However, the front end may 
be opened while the engine is working slowly, and it is possible that 
the leaks will show themselves or that the absence of any sparks 
around the joint at the bottom of the nozzle stand will indicate 
leakage at that point. To make a thorough test, the exhaust tip 
must be plugged and then, with the throttle open, the reverse lever 
should be moved from the forward to the back corner several times, 
using water pressure when available. 

Q.—Is there any difference in effect from a leaky dry pipe and a 
leaky throttle? 

A.—A leaky dry pipe will permit water to flow from the boiler to 
the cylinders, while a leaky throttle valve merely allows dry steam 
to escape from boiler, it being above water line. 

Q.—Do the gauge cocks indicate the true water level in boiler as 
accurately as the water glass? Why? 

A.—No, the gauge cocks are not as reliable as a perfect working 
water glass, because boiling water will rise the moment the pressure 
is relieved even a little, therefore, when the gauge cock is opened it 
relieves the pressure on water below it and the globes of steam in 
water begin to burst beneath the surface of the water and throw it 
up to opening in gauge cock, many times showing water at a gauge 
cock an inch or two above the true water level, while the water glass 
having the pressures perfectly equalized in it, the same as they are in 
boiler, the water in glass is at exactly the same level as it is in boiler. 

Q.—Suppose the whistle or one of the safety valves blew out, 
what would you do? 

A.—Put on both injectors and endeavor to hold the water to a 
safe level and, if the surrounding conditions permitted, place a 
wooden plug in the hole, holding it down by a timber across the hand 
rails, tying it down. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


145 


Q.—What would you do if one of the safety valve springs broke? 

A.—Screw down the adjusting screw and put that safety valve 
out of business, if possible. If this is not successful, reduce all the 
pressure, remove the adjusting screw and drop a small nut or bolt 
and then replace the adjusting screw, screwing it down until the 
safety valve is out of commission. 

Q.—How can a locomotive boiler without steam be filled with 
water by towing? 

A.—That can be done by pumping the air out of the boiler and 
permitting atmospheric pressure to force water into the boiler from 
the tender. The procedure is this: All openings where air could enter 
the boiler must be closed. These include relief valves, gauge cocks, 
cylinder cocks, the whistle valve, and air pump steam valve. When 
these have been closed, place the reverse lever in full gear in the 
direction the engine is to be hauled, and open the water supply valve 
and injector throttle. A good supply of engine oil should be fed 
through the auxiliary oil caps to valves and pistons. The move¬ 
ment of the pistons in the cylinders will pump the air out of the boiler 
and the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water in the tank 
will force a supply into the boiler. 

Q.—If a throttle valve leaks, what should be done? 

A.—This is annoying but not dangerous, and, as a rule, results 
from wear, or from the seat or valve cutting from wire drawing. 
The main thing to provide for is to keep the cylinder cocks open 
always and the reverse lever in the central notch when at a stand¬ 
still. In order to determine whether it is the throttle or dry pipe 
leaking, it should be observed whether the steam is dry or wet. 
Steam leaking through the throttle valve would be dry, because the 
valve is some distance above the water level, but the dry pipe is be¬ 
low the water level, indeed, is sometimes submerged, and, therefore, 
more or less water would leak through. 


DRAFT APPLIANCES 


Q.—Of what does the front end, or smoke-box, consist, and what 
does it contain? Describe the general arrangement of the parts. 

A.—The extended front end consists of an extension to the front 
end of the boiler, and contains the steam pipes, the exhaust nozzle, 
and the draft appliances. The front part of the extended front is 
fitted with a door, which can be opened and the parts inspected in¬ 
side. The front end door must be kept air-tight, for if air were al¬ 
lowed to enter the smoke-box it would partially destroy the vacuum 
and would affect the draft through the fire. The different parts con¬ 
sist of a deflector plate, which extends diagonally from the flue sheet 
to the nozzle, where it joins a horizontal piece of netting; the 



146 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


netting also extends at an angle up to the top of the smoke arch; the 
lower end of the, deflector passes the exhaust pipe and the steam 
pipes and has attached to it, extending diagonally downwards, a 
movable apron. Across the front end and a little above the middle 
is a horizontal plate that may be perforated or made of netting. 
There is also a petticoat pipe attached to the smoke-box at a certain 
distance above the nozzle. The steam pipes and exhaust nozzle are 
located in the smoke-box, and the smokestack is placed on top of 
the smoke-box. 

Q.—State briefly the purpose of each separate part going to make 
up the front end arrangement. 

A.—The deflector plate deflects the gases and cinders down¬ 
wards; the netting stops the sparks and cinders on their way to the 
stack and also acts to break the cinders up; the adjustable apron on 
the end of the deflector plate serves to equalize the draft through 
the flues and to clean the cinders out of the bottom of the smoke 
arch; the petticoat pipes, where used, also serve to equalize the 
draft through the flues and to direct the exhaust steam centrally up 
the stack. The exhaust pipe and nozzle conveys the steam from 
the cylinders and directs it centrally up the stack, and gives force 
to the steam when leaving the nozzle. The smokestack carries off 
the products of combustion above the engine and train, and serves 
as an instrument to enable the exhaust steam, in escaping, to create 
a draft through the fire. The steam pipes form a connection be¬ 
tween the dry pipe and the steam passages in the cylinder saddle. 

Q.—How should a displaced petticoat pipe be readjusted? 

A.—The purpose of a petticoat pipe is to obtain an even draft 
over the whole of the tubes. If too high, the most of the draft 
would pass through the lower rows of the tubes and pull upon the 
front end of the fire. If too low the draft would be strongest through 
the upper rows of tubes and the pulling would be at the rear end of 
the fire-box. Therefore the displacement of the petticoat pipe may 
be readily detected by the action of the fire. Where there is the least 
draft the tubes will also be choked with ashes and cinders. There¬ 
fore, if there be an excessive draft through the lower rows of tubes, 
the petticoat pipe should be lowered; if through the upper rows, it 
should be raised. 

Q.—Should a diaphragm or deflector plate on the smoke-box 
become misplaced, how may it be readjusted? 

A.—The purpose of the diaphragm in the front end of an engine 
is the same as that of the petticoat pipe. Uniformity of draft is 
obtained by the adjustment of the lower edge of the diaphragm, 
which is a separate sheet from the main body. Originally this lower 
sheet was movable and could be raised and lowered by a system of 
levers under the control of the engineer. Now it is bolted to the main 
plate in such a way as to permit of a limited amount of motion. 

Diaphragm displacement is indicated by the uneven action of the 
draft upon the fire, and a possible collection of cinders in tubes 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


147 


having an insufficient current of gases to keep them clear. If the 
diaphragm be too high, it would cause an excessive draft through 
the top rows of tubes, if too low, the same with the lower rows. 

For an excessive draft through the upper rows and at the rear 
end of the fire-box, the diaphragm should be lowered. If through 
the lower rows and at front of fire-box the plate should be raised. 

General directions for the adjustment of this plate, or for the pet¬ 
ticoat pipe that would make it possible to set either to the desired 
position without trial, can not be given. It depends upon the type 
of engine, the service it may be called upon to perform, and also the 
quality of coal to be burned. 

Q.—If the netting should become clogged or broken, what should 
be done? 

A.—Should the netting become clogged it is apt to seriously 
interfere with steaming, besides the danger of causing the fire to 
blow back into the cab. 

Clogging is usually caused by an excessive quantity of oil in the 
cylinders. Where an automatic oiler is used, it does not occur 
so frequently as where the cylinders are lubricated from cups in the 
cab. With this form of lubricator, the opening of the throttle 
immediately after the oil has been introduced is apt to throw it out 
at the exhaust nozzle and spatter the netting. 

There is danger of throwing out large sparks and starting fires if 
the netting has been cut or worn away so that there are holes in it. 
When this happens on the road, the engine should be worked as easily 
as possible when traversing districts where there is danger of starting 
a fire. The netting should be replaced with new when the terminal 
is reached. 

Q.—With a broken front, what should be done? 

A.—This rarely happens. When it does it is usually the result 
of a blow, such as a collision, and as a rule is accompanied by other 
damages. A broken front should be repaired by replacing it with 
boards which can be held by the studs and nuts which were used to 
hold the front. This, however, is but a temporary makeshift, owing 
to the liability of the boards being burned by the heat and cinders 
of the smoke-box. However, it would serve until the terminal could 
be reached provided the engine worked easily. 

Q.—What are the probable causes when exhaust is apparently 
coming out of one side of stack? 

A.—The exhaust nozzle may be set so high that the steam could 
not properly fill the stack. Or, if either petticoat pipe or nozzle were 
out of line the same result would be effected. 

Q.—What would be the effect if the steam did not properly fill 
the stack? 

A.—It would lower the steaming efficiency of the engine and the 
vacuum in the smoke-box would be irregular in its formation and 
action, because the blast produces a partial vacuum in the smoke- 
box by induction, just as a jet of steam in an injector lifts the water 



148 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


from a tank. If the jet does not fill the stack, the unfilled space 
permits a sluggish flow of the gases, resulting in the vacuum being 
lowered considerably. Hence it is important that there should be 
a proper adjustment of the size and position of the exhaust nozzle 
relative to the height and diameter of the stack. 

Q.—What should be done when the hopper of deep ash pan is 
burned or broken in a drop grate? 

A.—The fire should be pulled about three feet from the front 
of the remaining grates; then (if near a section house) the opening 
should be bridged over with a splice laid lengthwise. If unable to 
obtain a splice, anything available to serve the purpose may be 
used, because it would be impossible to proceed with the train any 
distance with the drop grate down. If a space the size of the drop 
grate were open, all the air that the exhaust draws would pass through 
it, and the fire on the remaining grates would not burn enough to 
maintain steam, even with a “ light” engine. 

Q.—What precaution should be taken to prevent the locomotive 
from throwing fire? 

A.—See that the spark arresting appliances are kept in perfect 
order, ash pan kept clean, and side dampers kept closed. 

Q.—What is the result of having leaky steam pipe joints in the 
smoke-box? 

A.—It interferes very seriously with the steaming of the engine. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
INJECTORS 


Q.—What are the main working parts of an injector? 

A.—The steam nozzle, combining tube, delivery tube, and the 
overflow nozzle. 

Q.—What is the use of each of these parts? 

A.—-The steam nozzle directs the steam to the combining tube, 
where it unites with the water. The combining tube is that which 
its name implies, the tube where the water and steam combine; 
the steam is condensed and imparts its velocity to the water, moving 
into the delivery tube, where the greatest velocity is attained, and 
passing through the delivery tube and branch pipe, forces the boiler 
check valve from its seat and enters the boiler. 

Q.—How are the tubes arranged in regard to each other? 

A.—They are in exact line with each other. 

Q.—What is the shape of the tubes? 

A.—Tapering. The small ends of the steam nozzle and the com¬ 
bining tube all face toward the small end of the delivery tube. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


149 


Q.—What three kinds of injectors are commonly used on loco¬ 
motives? 

A.—The non-lifting, the lifting, and the restarting injectors. 

Q.—Explain the meaning of the different names. 

A.—The non-lifting injector is one so located on the engine that 
the supply of water flows to it. A lifting injector is one where a jet 
of steam discharges, by opening an overflow valve through a waste 
pipe, thus creating a vacuum. This causes a suction through the 
overflow pipe and water flows from the pipe. The steam throttle 
being opened, the water is forced through the delivery tube into 
the boiler. Closing the overflow valve stops the flow of steam from 
the waste pipe after the injector has been started to work. 

A restarting injector is one that, if the supply of water is stopped 
temporarily, it will resume work as soon as the supply of water 
comes back to it, as in the case of an injector breaking from low 
water in the tank or on account of rough track. 

Q.—Why will not a lifting injector restart'when it breaks? 

A.—On account of the injector having a closed overflow the steam 
flows back through the tank hose into the tank when the injector 
breaks, and the water in the tank is thus kept from reaching the 
injector so that it could restart. 

Q.—Why will the restarting injector go to work automatically 
when it breaks? 

A.—Passages are provided for the escape of the steam to the 
atmosphere when the injector breaks, and the water still being furn¬ 
ished to the injector it goes to work automatically.- 

Q.—What tube measures the capacity of the injector? 

A.—The delivery tube, it being the smallest tube in the injector. 

Q.—Explain how the water delivered at the boiler check over¬ 
comes the boiler pressure at the boiler check and enters the boiler. 

A.—Because the water moving through the branch pipe has pres¬ 
sure, velocity, and weight, while the pressure within the boiler is 
at rest and is in this manner overbalanced. 

Q.—About what is the ratio of water and steam combining in the 
ordinary injector? 

A..—About fifteen parts of water to one of steam. 

Q.—Why is the delivery tube made small at the end where it 
receives the water and then expands? 

A.—To give the water greater velocity when it escapes from the 

tube. 

Q.—What causes the lifting effect in the lifting injector? 

A.—The vacuum being in front of the water supply from the tank, 
the air pressure on the water in the tank forces the water up into 
the injector. 

Q.—If an injector had been working in a satisfactory manner 
and suddenly stopped working, where would be the first place to 
search for trouble? 



150 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—In the water supply. The tank valve might have become 
disconnected. The strainer might be stopped up or fine coal or 
cinders might have gathered about the tank valve. 

Q.—In any of these cases how would you remove the obstruction 
without stopping engine and taking hose down? 

A.—Close overflow valve and blow a heavy jet of steam back 
through the tank hose from the injector steam throttle; if this does 
not suffice it will be necessary to take the hose down at the first 
opportunity. If air sucks into feed pipe at any point injector will 
break, so look out for this trouble also. 

Q.—What will cause an injector to fail to prime? 

A.—Low water in the tank, leaky boiler check valve or other leak 
of steam to injector that would destroy the vacuum, or an overflow 
pipe stopped up. 

Q.—In case an injector was not used for some time what might 
occur? 

A.—Boiler check valve might become corroded and stuck fast 
to seat so that injector would not work, and tubes might also become 
corroded and partly stopped up. 

Q.—If a boiler check valve would only partly lift when injector 
was started to work what would be the result? 

A.—Water would be thrown out on the ground through the over¬ 
flow pipe. 

Q.—Under either of these conditions can anything be done to 
remedy or help them? 

A.—Open cock to frost pipe and tap boiler check valve cage and 
try to work the injector; this will sometimes loosen the valve from 
its seat and injector will go to work properly. 

Q.—What effect has loose tubes on the working of an injector? 

A.—It will cause the injector to break. 

Q.—If the steam furnished by the injector steam throttle is not 
all condensed what is the result? 

A.—Injector will not work or will only partly take up the water. 
Either reduce the supply of steam or increase the supply of water. 

Q.—Will variation of steam pressure on boiler have any effect 
on the working of an injector? 

A.—Yes. If the steam pressure falls considerably the supply of 
water must be decreased or the injector will not take it all up, or the 
boiler will be oversupplied with water. 

Q.—What effect has bad water on injectors?’ 

A.—It corrodes or limes them up and they soon get in a condition 
where they will not work, and a bath in muriatic acid will be neces¬ 
sary to restore them to a good working condition. 

Q.—Which injector will corrode the more quickly, a lifting or a 
non-lifting injector? 

A.—The lifting injector, on account of steam being continually 
in the body of the injector. In some localities where the water is 
quite bad and injectors corrode quickly, only the non-lifting injectors 
are used to avoid changing and cleaning injectors so often. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


151 


Q.—Must air enter tank above water as fast as the water is taken 
out by the injector? 

A.—Yes. In all cases. 

Q.—What depends on the good condition of the injectors? 

A.—The safety of the boiler and the proper handling of the train. 

Q.—How should a boiler be pumped on a through train where 
stops are infrequent? 

A.—The injector must be worked hard enough to maintain the 
water level in the boiler. 

Q.—How should a boiler on a local train be pumped? 

A.—So that the water level will fall some between stations. The 
supply can be replenished while doing station work and the pops 
thereby kept from blowing off steam, and a brighter fire be kept 
burning on the grates. 

Q.—Is it desirable or not to have a good supply of water in the 
boiler when pulling out of town with a train? 

A.—Yes. The injector need not be put to work where there is 
plenty of water in the boiler until fire is in good shape and steam 
pressure at maximum. 

Q.—What should an engineer know about the injectors on the 
engine he is taking out before starting on a trip? 

A.—That both work in a satisfactory manner. If only one 
injector is used all the time the chances are that the other one will 
fail when most needed. 

Q.—Why will an injector not prime with hot water in feed pipe 
as we know it will not? What action takes place to prevent its 
doing so? Also, why is it that if injector is thrown back it will 
usually prime all right immediately after? 

A.—To prime the injector a vacuum must be formed in the feed 
pipe above water level. The water in feed pipe may not be hot 
enough to make steam rise against the normal atmospheric pressure 
but when priming valve is opened the pressure of atmosphere above 
water in feed pipe is reduced, so that steam may rise from the hot 
water and thus prevent the formation of vacuum sufficient for the 
water to be forced into the injector. By blowing the water back 
into the tank in such cases the contact of hot steam with the feed 
water would seem to make matters worse, yet the fact is the water 
which flows again into feed pipe, after having blown back, is usually 
of low enough temperature to not generate steam in the vacuum 
necessary to raise the water to injector as in priming. 

Q.—Some of the late injectors will not drop the water with a 
lowering of boiler pressure. What is the reason for that? 

A.—One of the injectors most efficient in operating with changes 
of boiler pressure is the simplex. It is really a double injector. 
When the steam pressure is high both its supply features are in 
operation; when the pressure falls, one of the features is automatic¬ 
ally cut out. The principle on which it works is briefly stated as 



152 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


follows: When the steam has imparted its full propelling force to 
the water where the steam and water join in the combination tube, 
the water is driven not directly into branch pipe, but into another 
nozzle from which the water is again discharged into a receiving 
tube joined to branch pipe. There is as open space between the 
ends of the discharging nozzle and receiving tube, and the rapid 
flow of water over this open space when injector is working at or 
nearly full capacity induces a vacuum at that point where means 
are provided for water to be supplied when this vacuum is created. 
The effect of this auxiliary feature is to take up some of this feed 
water, which is carried to the boiler by force imparted to the current 
of water by the steam in the combining tube. It is at once apparent 
that this princible affords a maximum supply of water with a mini¬ 
mum quantity of steam, which represents a considerable measure 
of economy, and when the boiler pressure varies there is no danger 
of waste at the overflow, as the effect of the reduced pressure would 
be to automatically cut out the water taken up by the auxiliary 
feature referred to. The small amount of steam needed to operate 
the original supply being such that it is not weakened enough by 
change of pressure to drop feed water at overflow, as the ordinary 
injector does. 

Q.—Will a leak in feed pipe have same effect on injector capacity, 
no matter where leak may be? 

A.—There is much difference in a leak in feed pipe on the capacity 
of the injector. The nearer it is to the injector the worse effect 
it has. One reason is that in being above water line it tends to pre¬ 
vent the formation of the vacuum needed for priming. Another 
reason is that owing to the constant presence of a partial vacuum 
in feed pipe above the feed water level the same size of leak will 
admit more-air than if same leak is at point below water line. 

Q.—What is the principle on which an injector works? 

A.—An injector works upon the principle of induced currents 
coupled with Velocity; a jet of steam flowing through the injector 
first creates a vacuum, allowing the atmospheric pressure acting 
on the water in the tank to force the water into the injector and out 
the overflow; the injector is now said to be primed. When the 
steam valve is opened wide the increased jet of steam meets with 
the body of water in the injector, with which it combines and im¬ 
parts sufficient velocity to the water to force it through the delivery 
pipe and open the boiler check valve and enter the boiler against 
the pressure that is in there. 

Q.—What are the various parts of a lifting injector? 

A.—A lifting injector consists of two different parts: the lifting 
part for lifting the water and the forcing part to force the water 
into the boiler. It consists of the injector body, a steam nozzle, 
a lifting tube, a combining and condensing tube and a delivery 
tube, also the various steam and water valves to operate it. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


153 


Q.—How would you start an injector? 

A.—To start the injector, first open the water valve and then 
open the steam valve slightly until water appears at the overflow; 
the injector is now said to be primed; then open the steam valve 
wide and the injector will start to work. 

Q.—What are the most common causes for injectors failing to 
work? 

A.—The most common causes are the suction pipe or strainer 
wholly or partially stopped up; tank valve closed or partly closed; 
loose hose lining; leaks in the suction pipes; leaky steam valve in 
the injector or leaky boiler check and line check valves; or the 
boiler check stuck shut; overflow valve stuck shut with a double 
tube injector; obstruction in the injector tubes; or in cold weather 
the tank may be frozen up air tight. 

Q.—What would you do if a check valve should stick open? 

A.—Go out on the running board and with a block of wood 
tap lightly on the check valve case and the delivery pipe; this will 
usually cause the check valve to be seated again. This can futher be 
assisted by opening the small pet cock in the branch pipe and re¬ 
ducing the pressure there. If the check valve cannot be seated, 
close the overflow valve and the water regulating valve to prevent 
the water from the boiler passing back through the injector. In case 
the injector has no water regulating valve or it will not close tight, 
reduce the steam pressure in the boiler, disconnect the hose from the 
feed pipe and plug the end of the pipe with a wooden plug, couple up 
the hose again to hold in the plug and use the other injector. 

Q.—How would you make sure whether it was the check valve 
or the steam valve that was leaking? 

A.—Shut off the steam supply from the boiler; if the steam stops 
flowing from the overflow the trouble is in the steam valve to the 
injector; while if steam and hot water continue to flow from the 
overflow the trouble is in the boiler check. 

Q.—How would you remedy the trouble? 

A.—In either case the water in the suction pipe will be too hot and 
the injector will not prime; however, it can be started to work by 
turning on the priming jet and closing the overflow valve so as to blow 
steam back into the suction pipe and force the hot water into the 
tank, then open the overflow valve and the cold water entering 
the suction pipe will rise and pass out through the overflow, when the 
steam valve can be opened wide. The water regulating valve 
should be kept closed when the injector is not working, to prevent 
the water in the tank from being heated. At the end of the trip 
the check valve and steam valve should be reported so that they 
may be ground in. 

Q.—If an injector refuses to work on account of an obstruction 
in the combining tube, what should be done? 

A.—The combining tube should be taken out and the obstruction 
removed. 



154 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—How would you know if there was a leak in the suction pipe, 
and how could it be located? 

A.—If the suction pipe is leaking the injector will work noisily. 
A leak in the suction pipe can be located by closing the overflow 
valve and the tank valve and opening the steam valve of the in¬ 
jector slightly; if there are any leaks steam will be seen escaping 
through them. 

Q.—Does the steam valve of an injector, whether a lifting or 
non-lifting kind, always take the steam from a dry pipe? Is this 
provision made merely to protect against carrying \yater too high? 

A.—All injectors, however designed or attached to boiler, must 
take the steam from the highest point in boiler, as through a dry 
pipe. The principle of the injector makes it impossible to operate 
it unless the steam is dry, and however riiuch care may be exercised 
in keeping water in boiler at a proper level there are effects of grade 
and shifting of water due to motion of engine that will carry enough 
water into steam pipe to break the injector. To make the injector 
reliable steam used to operate it must be all condensed at the moment 
a combination of the steam and water in combining tube takes place, 
which can not be done if water be carried into steam pipe. 

Q.—What would be the reason for injector failing to take up 
water when the pressure drops? 

A.—When the injector fails to ‘ Take up” all the water, as we say, 
as when the pressure of steam gets low, it shows the injector is 
designed for high pressure, and too much water is being supplied 
for the volume of steam supplied to drive it into boiler. If one 
injector will deliver more water at low pressure than another, it is 
because of its being proportioned so as to prevent an excessive 
amount of water being supplied to injector, or more at any time than 
the steam pressure within a certain range can handle cleanly. The 
latter is best suited for varying service, but where the demand for 
engine power is continually at or near the maximum the range of 
injector is less important than its ability to supply boiler. 

Q.—In pumping an engine what would you consider the proper 
amount of water to carry in boiler with engine working hard? 

A.—The proper water level is enough to protect the crown sheet 
and not so high as to be liable to be carried over into cylinders. 
Any height between these extremes is all right. The successful 
handling of engine is best managed when the water level is made to 
vary to suit the steaming of engine. If the engine be a poor steamer, 
or the fireman not skilled, it is well to start out with all the engine 
will carry so you can trade water for steam to make the next stop 
without blowing up. The fellow who pumps his engine according 
to some vague theory not in accord with this plan of loading up 
before you start may call you a poor pumper, and you may overdo 
the job at times, especially if the water is not of good quality or the 
boiler dirty; but in the long run you will leave the other fellow miles 
behind in point of performance and economy. Holding a fixed water 
level is all right if conditions permit it. They seldom do. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


155 


Q-—How about the practice of supplying water to boiler only 
when engine is working? Is there any advantage in that way of 
pumping, either as to economy of fuel or life of flues? 

A.—The practice you mention is theoretically correct in so far 
as its tendency is to prolong the life of the flues, but it is impossible 
to follow it out in a practical way, in general service, for obvious 
reasons. As to its effect on coal consumption, it is evident that if 
the engine is pumped only while working the supply must always 
equal the consumption. This would naturally tax the steaming 
capacity of engine to the limit quite often, which would be more 
wasteful of fuel than if the supply of water at starting would permit 
favoring the engine by pumping lightly between stops. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
LUBRICATORS 


Q.—Explain how the oil gets from the cup to the steam chest and 
cylinders. 

A.—Steam from the boiler is connected to the top of the cup, 
which keeps the condenser or ball at top of cup full of water. This 
steam also passes down steam pipes, sometimes located inside the 
cup, sometimes outside the cup, to top arms over sight feed glasses, 
and thence through oil pipes to steam chest. A water pipe leads 
from the bottom of condenser to bottom of oil tank, so oil will not 
come up this pipe, but water can pass down under the oil. The head 
of water in condenser forces oil out through feed valves and it rises 
through water in sight feed glass to where it mingles with the current 
of steam from top arm into oil pipes and then to steam chest. To 
bring the oil from top of oil tank to sight feed valve there is a pipe 
running up to top of tank which takes oil to feed valve till it is fed 
out, and water rises to top of this pipe. It requires a head of water 
in condenser to force oil through feed valves and a full boiler pressure 
of steam in the cup to make it feed regular at all times, whether 
working steam or with throttle shut off. 

Q.—What about the small check valves over sight feed glasses; 
what are they for? 

A.—They are put in by the makers to close down in case a glass 
bursts, and prevent the escape of steam from that side of cup, so 
the other side of cup can be used. They become gummed up after 
they are used, so they do not always operate. If they stick shut, 
the cup won’t feed, as oil can not pass up by these valves. 

Q.—Are there any other valves between the lubricator and the 
steam chest? Why not? 



156 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Not in the lubricators that have these check valves. The 
oil pipe, after leaving the cup, should have a clear passage without 
any valves in it to obstruct the passage of oil or steam. The later 
style of cups have a very small nozzle or 1 ‘choke” put in the passage 
where the current of oil and steam leaves the cup. This is to main¬ 
tain a steady boiler pressure in the cup, so it will feed regularly, 
either shut off or pulling a train. If the openings in these nozzles 
are too large the cup will commence to feed faster as soon as you close 
throttle so steam chest pressure falls. 

Q.—After filling the cup, which valve do you open first? Why? 

A.—Steam valve should be opened first, then the valve admitting 
water from condenser to bottom of oil tank, and when you want to 
set cup to feeding, with old Detroit No. 1, open auxiliaries next, 
about one-eighth of a turn or less; then feed valves. With new cups 
the auxiliary oilers do not regulate the steam feeds; the nozzles 
do this. 

Q.—If you should fill the cup with cold, oil while in the house, 
would you open the water valve or leave*it closed? 

A.—Open it and also open the valve on boiler enough so steam 
pressure would be in cup, unless engine was cold. This steam valve 
must be open whenever engine is working steam. If engine is cool¬ 
ing off, leave steam valve on boiler closed, if you think there is any 
danger of oil siphoning over into boiler when steam in boiler con¬ 
denses. 

Q.—How often should lubricator be cleaned out? Why? 

A.—If oil is good quality and kept free from dirt while in cans 
on engine, every two or three months is enough; if gummy oil is 
used, whenever it does not work freely. 

Q.—Should sight feed glass or feed valve on one side become 
broken or inoperative, can the sight feed on the other side be used? 

A.—Yes, if you can shut the steam out of top of broken glass, 
and oil off at bottom of glass, the other side can be operated. 

Q.—Will any of the lubricators in our service “cross-feed”—that 
is, feed to the opposite side of the engine? Why or why not? 

A.—Yes; some of the old style cups will. The manufacturers say 
none of the new style cups will. A cup can be tested by closing 
the escape of oil and steam from one side of cup—say to the right 
cylinder. Then if the right side sight feed will operate regularly, 
the oil must be going across and coming out on left side. In this 
test we expect the left sight feed valve is to be shut off. Then test 
the other side in like manner. 

Q.—Explain the cross-feeding difficulty as experienced in some 
of the lubricators in service. 

A.—With most of the old cups and some of the new ones, if the 
steam and oil outlet from cup to steam chest gets stopped up, the oil 
will rise up through the steam pipe and cross over, going down the 
other steam pipe to other outlet,, so one steam chest gets all the oil 
intended for both of them. If when the outlet from cup is stopped 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


157 


up or shut, the water fills up this steam pipe or “equalizing tube” 
till it stands higher than the head of water in the condenser, it can 
not cross-feed, as the low head of water in condenser will not force 
the oil through feed valve against a higher head of water in the 
equalizing tube. This is the reason the equalizing tube is coupled 
to the lubricator at a higher point than the pipe bringing steam 
from the boiler. Such lubricators will not cross-feed if steam pipe 
can drain the surplus water from condenser back to boiler. 

Q.—When will lubricator lose the oil remaining in it at time it 
is shut off? What action takes place and how can it be avoided? 

A.—When oil leaves lubricator at shutting off it is the result of 
not doing it right. The water valve should always be closed before 
the steam valve. When the steam valve is shut off first there is 
a sudden reduction of pressure in condenser and sight chambers and 
oil pipes. The pressure in body of lubricator or oil reservoir, due 
to the presence of the heat retained in the oil and water stored there, 
does not immediately reduce, as in the other parts named, with the 
result, that as the pressure lowers in other parts the greater pressure 
in the old reservoir causes the oil and water there to rush to the 
parts in which the pressure has become less. This action will some¬ 
times empty lubricator and is what is known as siphoning. 

When the water valve is shut off first, and the steam valve after, 
the same reduction of pressure takes place as before, but with water 
valve shut there is no connection between the oil reservoir and other 
pafts, so the siphoning action can not take place. 

Q.—What is a good way to lubricate cylinder in a case where one 
side of engine is cut out, say by blocking valve on center of seat, 
leaving main rod up and piston connected? Also in a case where 
engine is towed dead with both rods up and pistons connected? 

A.—There are many rules offered to provide for lubrication of 
cylinder, such as blocking valve so as to leave one steam port open 
a little, or to oil through indicator holes in- cylinder, and in some 
places it is the practice to slack off forward cylinder head to give 
cylinder oil, but it is usually not necessary to go to so much trouble. 
There is rarely a valve so tight as to prevent some steam, if even 
but condensed steam, to get to cylinder on side valve is blocked 
centrally on seat, and if the lubricator is feeding oil will surely get 
to cylinder. 

Where the engine is dead it is different, for the lubricator is not 
working. In this case it is not alone the cylinder but the valves 
also that need attention, and the best way to care for them is to feed 
oil through relief valves, making it thin enough so it will flow and 
spread easily over the bearing surfaces in the cold cylinders. 

Q.—Does a cold draft affect the working of a lubricator? Why? 

A.—Yes. Because it cpols the oil so it will not flow freely and 
affects the equalization. 

Q.—Name the different causes for irregularity in lubricator 
feeding? 



158 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Steam pipe leading to condensing chamber too small, or 
steam valve only partially opened; equalizing tubes stopped up or 
too small; choke plug openings worn too large, or the choke plug 
loose. 

Q.—When and in what order should you close the steam and 
water valves on a lubricator? 

A.—At the completion of a trip, or when necessary to fill lubri¬ 
cator, the water valve should be closed first and then the steam 
valve may be closed. At the beginning of a trip or after filling lubri¬ 
cator, the steam valve should be opened first and then the water 
valve may be opened. 

Q.—What will result from filling a lubricator with cold oil? 

A.—Oil will be wasted and the lubricator will be strained, be¬ 
cause the cold oil will expand and exert a great pressure on the walls 
of the oil reservoir, and when the water valve is opened some of the 
oil will be forced back into the condenser, and in some types of lubri¬ 
cators oil will be forced into the boiler. 

Q.—If the sight feed is stopped up, how would you clean them 
out on the different styles of lubricators? 

A.—Close all feed valves but the one affected, open check valve 
in top feed arm, then open the drain plug and steam from the equaliz¬ 
ing tube will blow out the dirt and sediment from the glass and feed 
tip. On some of the modern types drain cocks are provided in lower 
feed arm, and a plug valve controls the opening from top feed arm 
to feed glass* to be used when necessary to blow out. 

Q.—How would you clean out chokes on different style lubri¬ 
cators in use on this road? 

A.—On most lubricators the chokes can be cleaned by closing the 
main steam valve and draining a little water out of oil cup and con¬ 
densing chamber, then open engine throttle and the steam coming 
up through oil pipe will blow out the obstruction. Another way 
is to close the main steam valve, open the check valve in top feed arm, 
open sight feed drain, then open throttle and blow dirt into feed 
glass. On others it is necessary to disconnect the oil pipes and clean 
them by hand. 

Q.—Which is the better practice, to close the feed valves or the 
water valves while waiting on a siding? 

A.—It is better to close the feed valves. 

Q.—How can you tell when the equalizing tubes become 
stopped up? 

A.—With equalizing tubes partly stopped up, the oil will run in 
streams from the feeds when the throttle is eased off, and if they are 
entirely stopped up, the oil will squirt from the feed tips. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


159 


FRAMES, TRUCKS, TIRES, 
WHEELS, AND AXLES 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

Q.—What defects in a tender or engine truck wheel would, in your 
opinion, render same unsafe? 

A.—A bad tender or engine truck wheel is one that is cracked, 
that is slid flat or has the tread shelled out, or that has a sharp or 
broken flange. 

Q.—What would be the proper thing to do in case of a broken 
engine truck wheel or axle? 

A.—If a forward engine truck wheel or axle breaks it is impossible 
with the means usually at hand to do anything except send for help 
to put in a new pair of wheels. If the broken wheel or axle is at the 
back of the truck, however, the back end of the truck can be 
chained up to the frame of the engine by jacking up the front end 
of the engine to take the weight off the truck, raising the axle so 
that a block can be put under it to hold it up, then jacking up the 
journal box and truck frame and putting a chain around it that ex¬ 
tends around the frame and is so fastened that it will hold it up. 
A second chain should also be placed from the truck to the opposite 
side of the engine to prevent the back end of the truck swinging far 
enough to allow the good wheel to drop off the rail. A block should 
then be placed between the frame of the engine and the front end 
of the equalizer on the disabled side to take the weight off the broken 
wheel. A broken wheel can be skidded for a short distance if neces¬ 
sary to clear the main line. 

Q.—In case you find it necessary to raise a wheel while out on the 
road where jacks were not available, how would you accomplish it? 

A.—A wheel can be raised when j acks are not available by running 
it up on a wedge. 

Q.—What would you do with a broken frame if the break should 
occur back of the main driver? 

A.—If the frame is broken back of the main driver, it is not ad¬ 
visable to try to handle any part of the train, but the engine can be 
brought in light without doing any damage. 

Q.—How do you block up an engine for a broken driving spring 
or hanger? 

A.—If engine was raised with jacks, would block up the end of 
equalizer that had been connected to broken part, so it was a little 
higher than before, to allow for settling. It is customary to also 
block up between driving box and frame at the box where spring is 
broken. If this is a forward box, it puts the load on that box, which 



160 


ENGINBMEN’S MANUAL 


may be too much; it is better to block up oyer back driving box, 
whichever spring is broken; the weight is carried there best. If en¬ 
gine was raised by running up on blocks or wedges, would put a block 
on top of box under broken spring first, if possible, run that wheel 
up on wedge till the engine was raised up so equalizer could be blocked 
up level again; then put block over back box also, to carry what 
weight of engine the spring still at work on that side would not hold 
up; take out the broken spring or hanger if necessary. If equalizer 
is under frame and boxes, block under the end that will hold it in 
proper place. 

Q.—With a broken equalizer? 

A.—If on a standard eight-wheel engine, do the same work as for 
broken driving spring on that side. Take out broken parts, if neces¬ 
sary. If an engine truck equalizer, block on top of truck oil boxes 
and under top bar of engine truck frame. If it is the cross equalizer 
on a four-wheel switch engine, block up between top of forward boxes 
and engine frame; some of these equalizers are located under the 
bottom rail of frame, with the hangers going up outside of frame, 
in which case you can block between hanger and frame. For broken 
cross equalizer between the forward drivers of a mogul, it will be 
necessary to block on top of forward driving boxes; if equalizer go¬ 
ing to center pin is broken or disabled, a block can be put over cross 
equalizer and under boiler, and thus get the use of the forward driv¬ 
ing springs. 

Q.—With broken engine truck spring or hanger? 

A.—If it is a four-wheel engine truck, block over the equalizers 
and under top bar of engine truck frame close to band of spring, 
high enough so engine will ride level with other side; with mogul, 
over the truck box. If engine truck center casting breaks on a 
standard engine, block across under truck frame and center casting 
and over the equalizers, from one side to the other; a couple pieces 
of rail four and one-half to five feet long come handy for this. Or 
you can put a solid block under the engine frame next to cylinder 
saddle and on top of truck frame on each side; this plan will give you 
the use of the engine truck springs, although it does not always hold 
the center casting up against male casting under smoke arch, so 
engine will track straight. 

Q.—With broken intermediate equalizer on mogul? 

A.—Block over driving boxes if necessary, as with the cross 
equalizer broken; under the boiler and over cross equalizer, if en¬ 
gine truck equalizer is disabled. 

Q.—With broken engine truck center pin on mogul, what is to be 
done? 

A.—Block up same as for broken equalizer, except that a block 
is needed over truck axle and under front end of equalizer; a truck 
brass comes handy for this purpose. 

Q.—What should you do when a tire breaks and comes off the 
wheel on a standard engine? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


161 


A.—If it is a main tire, raise that wheel center up off the rail a 
little higher than the thickness of the tire to allow for engine settling 
when blocked up; take out oil cellar so journal would not get cut on 
the edges of cellar, put a solid block of wood between pedestal brace 
and journal, to hold wheel center up clear of rail, and block up over 
back driving box, so engine could not settle or get down to allow cast 
iron wheel center to strike the rail. It will take considerable strain 
off the pedestal brace to put a block under spring saddle and on top 
of frame. Taking out this driving spring makes a sure job. Take 
off all other broken or disabled parts; if rods are still in good order, 
leave them up. If a back tire, block up in the same manner as for 
main tire, except that blocking comes next other journals and boxes. 
If engine is very heavy, it may be necessary to carry part of the 
weight of back end of the engine on tender. This can sometimes be 
done by wedging up under chafing block on engine deck and over 
coupling bar; at other times it may be necessary to lay a solid tie or 
short rail on top of deck, the end against the fire-box, extending back 
into tender. Chain around this tie or rail and to the frame at back 
driving box pedestal, and block up under end that is on tender, so 
weight of engine will be carried on rail or tie back on tender. This 
plan of blocking leaves three good tires on the rails, and the disabled 
wheel carried away from the rail. Run wheel on blocks to raise it 
clear of rail when possible. 

Q.—With main tire on mogul? 

A.—Block up under main journal and over back driving box. 
If with eitlier tire broken on mogul or ten-wheel engine, side rods 
have to be taken off, it may be necessary to be towed in if crank pin 
in forward wheel does not clear crosshead when side rods are un¬ 
coupled. Some mogul and ten-wheel engines have the main tires 
without flanges, others have the forward pair “bald,” which makes 
a little difference in keeping them on track when blocked up. 

Q.—With the back tire on mogul? 

A.—Same as for back tire on any other engine, taking off all 
broken parts. To hold flanges of the good tire against the rail when 
running, chain from end of engine frame and deck (the step easting 
is handy for this) across to corner of tender, behind the good tire; 
this will hold flange over and tender will be used to hold back end 
of engine on rail. 

Q.—With both back tires on mogul? 

A.—Raise both wheel centers up to clear the rail and block under 
journals to hold them up. Arrange to carry part of weight of back 
part of engine on tender; chain back end of engine each way to ten¬ 
der frame, so main wheels will have no chance to get off track. Or 
a shoe or “slipper” having a flange on one side can be fastened to 
center wheel—a piece of old tire will make a good one—the wheel 
center blocked so it will slide, and bring engine in that way. An¬ 
other way is to take out the back wheels, as in the case of a broken 
axle, and put in a car truck, blocking up under engine deck; this is 



162 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


a job for the wrecking car. With a four-wheel switch engine with 
front tire broken, if engine is still on track, front end of engine can 
be chained to a flat car, which will carry the weight and steer front 
end of engine. In all cases of broken tire, it is understood that other 
parts of the engine that are damaged must be removed; the tire 
generally removes itself. 

Q.—With back tire or back driver broken off, how do you fix en¬ 
gine so you can back around curves when necessary? 

A.—Chain across from step on engine deck on disabled side to 
tender frame on other side, or put a block from cab casting or chafing 
iron on deck across where the block can brace against tender frame; 
this will hold good flange against rail. Look out when going through 
frogs, as there is nothing to keep flange from leading into point of frog. 

Q.—At what fixed points is the weight of engine carried when 
springs and equalizers are in good order? 

A.—On a standard engine the “permanent bearings” or fixed 
points are the equalizer centers, one on each side of fire-box, and the 
center bearing of engine truck; with moguls, where equalizer cen¬ 
ters are fastened to frame and to center of cylinder saddle. With 
most all four-wheel switch engines the weight is also distributed to 
three points, which are the back driving boxes and middle of equal¬ 
izer, which extends between the forward ends of front driving springs. 
Engines are designed to carry their weight on three points, so all 
wheels will bear evenly on the rails; equalizers are then used to dis¬ 
tribute the weight to all the driving wheels evenly. 

Q.—Where is the weight carried when blocked up over the forward 
driving box? 

A.—If blocked up over forward driving box solid , this box takes 
all the weight that was carried on both boxes on that side, and a little 
more, as the block comes more nearly under the center of the engine 
than the equalizer post does. If the block over driving box carries 
the weight which was carried by equalizer before, it will have a 
double load on it. When blocked up solid over a driving box, as in 
the case of a broken tire, the weight of the entire engine comes on 
engine truck center, the equalizer post on good side of engine, and 
on the block over driving box on disabled side of engine. 

Q.—When blocked up over the back driving box? 

A.—On that box, on the equalizer post on opposite side of engine, 
and engine truck center casting. A block over back box carries less 
of the weight than a block over forward box, as the engine truck 
carries a larger share of the load. The nearer the center of the 
weight of an engine the blocking is located, the greater proportion 
of the total weight the block carries. As, for instance, if a standard 
eight-wheel engine balances, or has half her weight ahead of and half 
behind the main axle, if blocked up solid over main axle, in case of a 
broken axle on both back tires, these blocks over main axle carry 
the entire weight of the engine. If all wheels are bearing on the 
rail and springs still in service, the springs take some of the strain 
off the blocking. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


163 


Q.—What is the best material to use to block between driving 
box and frame? 

A.—Wood or an old rubber spring is most elastic, but it will not 
hold up a heavy engine; it is liable to get in the oil holes and stop 
them up. An iron block made for that purpose, or extra large nuts 
are the best for heavy engines. 

Q.—If driving box or brass breaks so it is cutting the axle badly, 
what can you do to relieve it? 

A.—Block between spring saddle and top of frame, so as to take 
the strain of driving spring off the disabled box; or take out the driv¬ 
ing spring entirely. This last is a very sure way; the block may 
work out from under spring saddle. 

Q.—Do you consider it an engineer’s duty to have suitable hard 
wood blocks on his engine to use in case of a breakdown? 

A.—Yes; he should have a set of crosshead blocks for each side 
of the engine; two blocks of straight grained hard wood that can be 
split to proper size for blocking under driving wheels or over engine 
truck equalizers with broken truck springs and bell cord to use in 
tying up disabled parts. He should have suitable wedges or blocks 
for running driving wheels up on in case of broken springs, tire, etc. 

Q.—How do you block up or get to a sidetrack with a broken 
engine truck wheel or axle? 

A.—If a piece is broken out of wheel, it can be skidded to next 
side track by laying a tie in front of that pair of wheels. If axle is 
broken or wheel broken off outside of box, you can chain that corner 
of engine truck up to engine frame, being careful to chain so as to 
crowd good wheel against the rail. 



— TufoJIhthodi of Chaining up TrucK forBroXtn WutlorfijcU —- 








































164 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—With mogul, with broken engine truck wheel or axle, what 
would you do? 

A.—Take it out if necessary. Chain engine truck to engine frame; 
block up on top of forward driving boxes. 

Q.—With broken tender truck wheel or axle, what would you do? 

A.—If with broken wheel, try and skid it to the next station, so 
as to clear main line. With broken axle, take disabled wheels out 
and suspend that part of truck to tender. Block over the good wheels 
in this truck and under tender frame. 


roXerxErx^rTru. c horAxlt, —■ 



Q.—Is it necessary to take down the main rod if the frame is 
broken between the cylinder and forward driving box? 

A.—Yes, if crack opens up when engine is working steam, and it 
generally does. Don’t let any other engine pull on you while frame 
is broken. 

Q.—Would you take down either rod if the frame is broken be¬ 
tween forward and back driving boxes? 

A.—If broken badly, take down side rods. 

Q.—Where is the frame fastened solid to the other part of the 
engine? 

A.—At the cylinder saddle, solidly; at side of fire-box, loosely, 
so as to allow of expansion of boiler in length when under steam; 
at the guide yoke, to keep sides parallel, and solidly at the deck 
casting. Some engines also have belly braces from cylinder part 
of boiler to frame. 

Q.—What should be done if a main wheel breaks off its axle? 

A.—Would disconnect on broken side and remove all the side 
rods and the broken wheel. The eccentrics would serve to prevent 
the other wheel from leaving the rail. Even though a blind tire, 
would use a jack to raise the axles on the broken side. Remove the 
oil cellar and fit a hardwood block between the driving axle and the 
pedestal jaw or binder. Old rod-keys or any kind of iron could be 
used to block between the spring saddle and the top of the frame 




























ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


165 


to keep part of the weight off the axle at that point. Then the jack 
should be removed. Would next slightly raise the engine on the 
broken side and block between the top of the driving box or the 
boxes nearest to the main wheel on the broken side, using hard wood 
or iron. If an eight-wheeled engine, would also block between the 
engine truck equalizers and the truck frame on both sides, because 
additional weight would be imposed upon the truck. If a consoli¬ 
dated engine, would block on top of the two boxes nearest the main 
box only. The engine should then be let down and run slowly. 

Q.—If a main wheel is cracked, what should be done? 

A.—If possible, would run engine slowly to the first side-track, 
provided the wheel were not too badly broken, but would watch it 
closely. Then would disconnect broken side and remove all the 
side rods so as to take the strain off the crank pin on the broken 
wheel, and it might then be possible to proceed. But, if the break 
were bad enough to render it unsafe to proceed “light,” would block 
the wheel up to clear the rail the same as for a broken tire. Then 
would run very slowly and carefully. 

Q.—If a main driving axle breaks, what should be done? 

A.—If an eight-wheel engine with the axle broken off outside of 
the driving box, would remove the spring over the broken axle and 
jack up the broken axle to free the driving box cellar. Would next 
remove the cellar and fit a solid block of wood between the axle and 
the binder brace and nail a strip across each side to prevent it from 
falling out. All the side rods would have to be taken down and the 
engine run slowly, using only one side. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
GUIDES AND RODS 


Q.—What is the use of the crosshead? 

A.—It is a medium of connection between the piston rod and the 
main rod, by means of which the pressure exerted on the piston head 
by the steam is transmitted to the crank pin of the main driving 
wheels. 

Q.—Why can not the main rod be connected directly to the pis¬ 
ton rod? 

A.—The strain on the piston rod, stuffing box, and packing gland 
would be too great for obvious reasons, and to overcome this the 
crosshead working in guide bars is employed. 

Q.—Describe the crosshead at piston end. 

A.—It has a horizontal tapering socket at this end, through which 
a tapering key-way is cut at right angles perpendicularly to the 



166 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


socket. This socket receives the tapering end of the piston rod, and 
a key is driven in the key-way, which draws and holds the piston rod 
firmly in the crosshead. 

Q.—What is the result if this key becomes loosened or broken, 
or the piston rod breaks? 

A.—If key becomes loosened it will result in a bad pound. If 
piston rod or key become broken the front cylinder head will be 
destroyed, and it will be necessary to disconnect the valve stem and 
cover ports. 

Q.—How is the main rod end of the crosshead equipped? 

A.—With a wrist pin extending across the extended sides of the 
crosshead. The forward end of the main rod is connected to this 
wrist pin by a strap and bolts holding brasses that fit around the wrist 
pin and are adjusted by means of a tapering key, which is held tight 
by means of a set screw through a keeper at the bottom of the strap. 

Q.—If this key is not properly adjusted, what is the result? 

A.—A pound that may result in a broken rod strap and other 
consequent damage. 

Q.—In case of a broken wrist pin, front end strap to main rod or 
crosshead, what is to be done? 

A.—Take down the main rod and such other parts as may be 
necessary from breakage by the accident, block crosshead back in 
guides, disconnect valve stem and cover ports. 

Q.—Why should crosshead be blocked in back of guide bars? 

A.—Because front cylinder head is more easily and cheaply re¬ 
placed in case of damage from crosshead getting loose in guides 
through blocking working loose. 

Q.—Where will the wrist pin become the smallest through wear? 

A.—At the front and back side, owing to the direct pull and push 
of the piston. For this reason keying the front end of a main rod 
on the eighth will give the best result, although care must be taken 
not to get the brasses too tight, as no brasses will cut out more quick¬ 
ly if improperly keyed. 

Q.—How are the sides of crosshead equipped? 

A.—With wings or slides that work between the guides and bear 
the weight of the crosshead and a portion of that of the piston and 
main rods. 

Q.—Why are crosshead wings equipped with gibs? 

A.—To receive the wear where the crosshead travels in the guides. 
They can be replaced more easily and cheaply than a new crosshead 
could be put in. 

Q.—Why is a wrist pin made heavy? 

A.—To withstand the strain to which it is subjected, and which 
is especially heavy on curves where it is subjected to a twisting 
motion. 

Q.—What causes this twisting motion on curves? 

A.—The lateral play, or, more plainly speaking, the side motion 
between the hubs of the driving wheels and the inside of the driving 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


167 


boxes. This side motion will not amount to a great deal in a new 
engine, but will be considerable in one about ready for general repairs. 

Q.—Driving boxes will slip back and forth on the journals where 
there is straight track; why is the twisting motion any greater on a 
curve? 

A.—Owing to the cramped condition of the rods, boxes, and 
wheels on one side and their drawn condition on the other. The 
wheels on the outside of the curve travel the farthest, so it is evident 
those on the inside must slip to keep them in unison. 

Q.—How are guide bars put up? 

A.—Parallel with the axis of the cylinder. 

Q.—Is there more than one type of guide bars? 

A.—Yes, the single bar, which passes through the crosshead and 
has piston and main rods attached to under side; the two-bar type, 
with one bar under and one above the crosshead; and the four-bar 
type, two bars above and two below the crosshead. 

Q.—What are guide blocks? 

A.—Blocks which are attached at one end of the guides to the 
back cylinder head, and at the other end of the guides to the guide 
yoke by studs. The guides are bolted to these blocks. These blocks 
are subjected to great vertical strain. 

Q.—What is done to reduce guide wear to a minimum? 

A.—They are made as hard and smooth as possible. The cross¬ 
head gibs are made softer than the guide bars to take the wear, as 
they can be renewed more cheaply and quickly. 

Q.—How is the wear of the gibs compensated for to avoid lost 
motion before gibs are worn out? 

A.—By liners placed between the end of the guide bars and guide 
blocks, which are removed as the gibs wear and the guides closed. 
When new gibs are put in liners can be replaced. 

Q.—Is the wear equal on all guide bars? 

A.—No; it is more uniform on yard or suburban passenger en¬ 
gines because they run more evenly in both directions, while the 
majority of locomotives do the greater part of the work running 
ahead. With them the upper guide bars receive the most wear, 
because when the stroke is toward the crank pin and the main rod 
is below the crosshead, the pressure on the piston head makes com¬ 
pression on the crosshead and pushes it up against the guide bars, 
and on the return stroke the main rod is in tension and is above the 
crosshead, and pulls it up against the guide bars. Running back¬ 
ward, the main rod, being in tension, pulls the crosshead down on 
the guide bars, and on the return stroke the main rod, being in com¬ 
pression above the guide bars, pushes the crosshead down on the 
lower guide bars. 

Q.—At what point is the greatest strain exerted on the guide bars? 

A.—At their centers, as this point is farthest from the point of 
support, and also at that point the angularity of the main rod is the 
greatest. 



168 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—Explain the difference in the motion of the different ends of 
the main rod? 

A.—The main rod and crank pin receive the pressure exerted 
against the piston by the steam and convey it to the wheel. This 
pressure gives to the front end of the main rod a reciprocating mo¬ 
tion that corresponds to the motion of the crosshead. The back end 
of the main rod has a rotary motion that corresponds to that of the 
crank pin, and parts of the rod intermediate to these points have a 
combination motion of the two, varying from a reciprocating to a 
rotary, according to their distance from the crosshead or the crank pin. 

Q.—Is there any loss of power owing to the varying angle at which 
the main rod transmits power to the crank pin? 

A.—None, except that which is lost through friction. 

Q.—In what portion of the crank pin circle is the greatest power 
exerted on the pin? 

A.—When pin is on the quartered piston is at the center of its 
stroke. 

Q.—What are the dead points of an engine? 

A.—When the centers of the wrist pin, main rod, crank pin, and 
main driving a.xle are in a straight line on one side, then the engine 
on that side is practically powerless and must be carried by these 
points by momentum previously gained, or by the engine on the 
opposite side, which is then working at its maximum power. 

Q.—What is done in case of a broken main rod? 

A.—Take off broken parts. Block crosshead, disconnect valve 
stem and cover ports. 

Q.—Define compression and tension of a main rod. 

A.—Compression is when rod is pushed toward crank pin, and 
tension when pulled from the crank pin. 

Q.—What are main rods? 

A.—Flat bars of wrought iron, larger at the crank pin than at the 
wrist end. Some of them are fluted, as are side rods, to make them 
lighter and stronger. 

Q.—Why are main rods made larger at the crank pin end than 
at the wrist pin end? 

A.—Because of the greater size of the crank pin. It has also 
been found that more main rods break at the crank pin end. 

Q.—How are rod brasses made? 

A.—They are made in pairs, cored out to fit the pin, and dressed 
slightly less than a half circle to allow for keying when brasses be¬ 
come worn. They are held in place by U-shaped straps that sur¬ 
round the grooved sides of brasses, and slipping over the end of the 
main rod are held in place by bolts. 

Q.—Is there any other form of brass used? 

A.—Yes, what is known as solid brass. It is a round bushing of 
brass forced in the hole at the enlarged end of the rods. The objection 
to this brass is that when worn it can not be tightened to the pin by 
keying, and so is often worn loose to save putting in new bushings. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


169 


Q.—Do driving rod-keys alter the length of the main rod? 

A.—With one key ahead of crank pin and the other ahead of 
wrist pin the length of the rod will not be visibly altered. 

Q.—If the edges of the rod brasses meet and the key is tight, and 
the brasses are still too loose on the pin, what must be done? 

A.—The brasses must be reduced. 

Q.—When should rod brasses be keyed where grease cups are used 
to lubricate pins? 

A.—After the locomotive has been run some distance, and after 
cups have been screwed down so that the grease between the pin and 
the brasses will be worn out, otherwise the brasses will appear tight 
on the pin when in reality they are loose. 

Q.—Why is babbit put in grooves in inner side of rod brasses? 

A.—Because they run cooler, and as babbit will fuse at a lower 
degree of heat than brass, a warning will be given by its melting that 
would save more serious damage. 

Q.—Why is it necessary to keep rod brasses keyed up properly? 

A.—To avoid their pounding. A pounding brass will heat the 
same as one keyed too tight. 

Q.—Where should the back end of a main rod be keyed? 

A.—On the center, which should be the largest part of the crank 
pin. 

Q.—What are the rods called that unite the driving wheels? 

A.—Side rods, connecting rods, and parallel rods. 

Q.—Explain these different terms. 

A.—Side rods are so called because they are placed on the sides 
of the driving wheels. Connecting rods, because they connect the 
driving wheels; and parallel rods, because the one on one side is paral¬ 
lel to the one on the other side and also to the rail. 

Q.—Where should side rod brasses be keyed? 

A.—With engine on center on side that is being keyed, to avoid 
changing the length of the rod. 

Q.—Should wedges be properly adjusted before side rods are 
keyed? 

A.—Slack wedges will cause more wear on recently keyed rods 
than would occur in natural wear many times over. 

Q.—Should a rod-key be slackened if a pin runs hot? 

A.—No, not unless it has been recently keyed and is found to be 
keyed too tight. Look for the trouble from some other source. 

Q.—How should a middle connection be first keyed on a ten- 
wheel engine? 

A.—Drive both keys out and then drive one down, mark it, when 
clear down, with a knife, scratch even with top of strap and drive it 
out. Drive the other one down and mark it in like manner and drive 
it out. Start both keys and drive them down, and when brass is 
tight enough to suit, have marks on both keys equally distant from 
rod strap. 



170 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—How can it be determined if there is a pound in rod brasses 
or a driving box? 

A.—Put engine on quarter on side to be tried and have fireman 
give cylinders a little steam and throw lever back and forth, “chug” 
her, it is termed. A pound will readily be found by this means. 
Do not key brasses so they will not yield a bit under “chugging” or 
there will be a hot pin. 

Q.—What is to be done in case of a broken side rod or crank pin? 

A.—Take down side rods on both sides on an eight-wheel engine, 
and if a main pin the main rod on that side must come down. 

Q.—Why must opposite side rod come down? 

A.—With nothing to guide it when it reaches the center it is as 
apt to go up as down, in the wrong direction instead of the right one, 
and then there will be more damage. On consolidated engines, when 
rod in front or back section breaks take down the same rod on the 
opposite side, as they have the same relation to each other as the side 
rods of an eight-wheel engine. If in middle section, all side rods 
must come down. On six-wheel connected engines, if back side rod 
breaks take down back side rods; if a front side rod breaks all side 
rods must come down, because knuckle joint back of pin would turn 
with crank pin and without rest of side rod. 

Q.—Why are knuckle joints used on side rods on engines with 
more than two pairs of driving wheels, instead of a one-piece rod? 

A.—To allow the wheels to adjust themselves to the inequalities 
of the track. 

Q.—Where should knuckle pins be located? 

A.—As near the crank pin as possible, to lessen the strain on it. 
When one breaks it is to be dealt with the same as a broken back 
side rod. 

Q.—Why are side rods made heavier in the center? 

A.—To make them stiffer in the vertical plane. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 


Q.—What controls the admission and exhaust of steam to and 
from the cylinders of a locomotive? 

A.—The valves and their gears. 

Q.—Name the parts of the valve gear. 

A.—The reverse lever, reach rod, reversing arm, tumbling shaft, 
lifting arm, link hammer, link saddle, link saddle pin, link, eccen¬ 
trics, eccentric straps and blades, top and bottom rocker arms, valve 
rod, yoke, and, lastly, the valve. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


171 


Q.—Describe the common slide, or D, valve. 

A.—The unbalanced common slide valve is so little used as to be 
not worthy of special description, the balanced slide valve or piston 
valve having taken its place. On top of the cylinder is a flat ported 
surface called the valve seat. Over the surface of this seat the valve 
plays, alternately filling or exhausting the steam from the ends of 
the cylinders. A yoke surrounding the valve forms the steam chest 
end of the valve rod, and the other end of the rod being attached to 
the top rocker arm receives its motion back and forth from it as it 
in turn receives its motion from the eccentrics. The body of the 
valve is hollow and has lips projecting from its base. 

Q.—Why was the balanced slide valve adopted? 

A.—The unbalanced slide valve, owing to the steam pressure on 
its top, rode too heavy on the seat, thus lessening the power of the 
locomotive. To overcome this, a plate, called the pressure plate, 
was fastened to the steam chest cover parallel with the valve seat. 
The top of the valve was faced off and metal strips fitted in grooves 
were run around the top of the valve. Springs were placed under 
these strips to force them up against the pressure plate when the 
cover was put on, thus preventing steam from getting on top of 
valve and pressing it down on seat. A hole is drilled down through 
the top of the valve to allow any steam that might leak past the valve 
strips to escape through the exhaust port. 

Q.—Describe the piston valve. 

A.—It is a cylinder or spool-shaped valve, and is designed to travel 
in a cylinder-bore steam chest with the same ports of admission and 
exhaust as are employed with the slide valve. It derives its name 
from its form of construction. Each end of the piston valve has 
two or more packing rings which form the exhaust and admission 
edges of the valve. 

Q.—Is the piston valve one solid piece? 

A.—As a rule it is not. Usually it is made in two parts held to¬ 
gether by a hollow rod. 

Q.—What is the effect of the ends of the piston valve being near 
the ends of the cylinder? 

A.—The amount of steam used at each stroke of the piston for 
filling the clearance is lessened. 

Q.—What was the piston valve designed to do? 

A.—To balance the pressure in steam chest and thereby reduce 
the friction on high pressure locomotives and lessen the amount of 
lubrication required with their use. The wear on piston valves is 
not great under normal conditions. 

Q.—Is it best for valves and cylinders to work a little steam 
when running down a hill? 

A.—It is, for two reasons, principally to lubricate the valves and 
cylinders and cushion the piston at the end of the stroke. When a 
locomotive has drifted down a hill some distance with steam shut off, 
upon first opening the throttle the valves will be noticeably dry and 



172 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


will not work smooth again for some distance. When an engine is 
running with throttle shut off the strain of stopping and starting the 
pistons twice at each revolution of the wheels falls on the piston 
rod and its connections, which the steam cushion at the end of the 
stroke avoids. 



Q.—Should the reverse lever be dropped in full gear when steam 
is shut off at high speed or even moderately high speed. 

A.—No. The whole load is practically put on the one eccentric 
and the lever will jerk. The locomotive will run more smoothly and 
there will be less danger of a hot eccentric if the lever is dropped 
down but a short distance on the quadrant. 












































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


173 


Q.—Are all piston valves alike as to the manner in which they 
admit steam to the cylinders? 

A.—No. Some are inside admission and others outside admission 
valves. 

Q.—What is an inside admission valve? 

A.—One that takes the steam from the boiler supply into its central 
cavity and from there passes it to the steam ports of the cylinder, 
and the exhaust steam from the cylinder comes out at the ends of the 
valve and passes through the exhaust passages in the cylinder 
saddle to the stack and atmosphere. 

Q.—Describe the outside admission valve? 

A.—One that uncovers the ports the same as the D slide valve. 
The outside ends of the valve uncover the ports for steam admission 
to the cylinder, and the exhaust steam passes through the cavity of 
the valve before escaping through the exhaust passages to the noz¬ 
zles and stack. 

Q.—How does the piston, piston valve, and valve motion compare 
on an outside and inside admission valve? 

A.—With the inside admission valve the motion of the valve is in 
the opposite direction to the motion of the piston at the beginning 
of the stroke, while with the outside admission valve the movement 
of the valve is in the same direction as that of the piston at the com¬ 
mencement of the stroke. The inside admission valve is the one 
more commonly employed. 

Q.—How can one tell whether a piston valve is of the inside or 
outside admission type? 

A.—Watch the valve rod and note if it moves with the piston at 
the commencement of the stroke; if so, it is an outside admission 
valve; if in the opposite direction, it is inside admission. 

Q.—Define direct and indirect-motion valve gear. 

A.—Direct-motion valve gear is that in which the motion of the 
eccentric is direct to the valve and is not reversed by means of a 
rocker arm, or is one having a rocker on which both arms are either 
hung down or stand up and move in the same direction. An indirect- 
motion valve gear is one in shich the motion of the eccentric is re¬ 
versed by means of a rocker, the lower arm of which moves in the 
opposite direction to the upper arm and also of the valve. 

Q.—At what point in its travel is the piston valve most perfectly 
balanced? 

A.—At mid travel with all ports closed. 

Q.—What are by-pass valves; why are they necessary with piston 
and not with slide valves, and what duty do they perform? 

A.—They are merely relief valves. When an overpressure oc¬ 
curs in a cylinder from any cause the D slide valve would lift and 
allow it to escape, but as this could not obtain with a piston valve the 
by-pass valve connecting the steam pressure chamber of the valve 
with the cylinder is employed. The valve chamber end of the by-pass 
valve is the larger, so that the pressure in the cylinder must exceed 



174 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


that in the valve chamber before the by-pass valve will open and let 
the excess pressure blow into the valve chamber. A relief, or pop, 
valve is used on some locomotives in place of a by-pass valve. 

Q —What is cut-off as applied to valve motion? 

A—The point where the steam admission from the chest is cut 
off from the cylinder by the valve travel. This point is determined 
by the position of the reverse lever in the quadrant in cab, and should 
be the one where the engine is doing its work most satisfactorily and 
economically. 



Section showing action of steam in single ex 
pansion cylinder Piston shown in section 

Q.—How is steam used expansively? 

A.—After the valve in its travel has closed the steam admission 
ports to the cylinder the steam still continues to exert a pressure 
against the piston head by reason of its elasticity and expansibility 
until the exhaust port allows it to escape. This pressure on the pis¬ 
ton lessens in a degree proportionate to the piston travel after the 
steam supply is cut off. Thus, if the steam was cut off with a mean 
effective pressure of 100 pounds per square inch of piston surface 
when the piston had traveled 10 inches, at 20-inch piston travel the 
mean effective pressure would be 50 pounds per square inch. The 
distance the valve travels through the expansion of the steam equals 
the total inside and outside laps of the valves. 
















































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


175 


Q.—What is compression? 

A.—The confining of any portion of the exhaust steam in one end 
of the cylinder by closing the exhaust port before all the steam in the 
cylinder has had time to escape, which is done by means of inside 
(exhaust) lap on the valve. This might be sufficient to cause back 
pressure, and thus hurt the efficiency of the engine, or it might be only 
enough to cause a cushion. 

Q.—What is meant by a cushion, and how is it obtained? 

A.—The presence of a small amount of steam in the clearance 
space to ease the stoppage of the piston at the end of its stroke. 
This steam may be admitted by valve lead just prior to the piston 
completing its travel, or, as before shown, may be retained in the 
cylinder also by exhaust lap. 



Q.—What is clearance? 

A.—The free space between the piston head at the end of the 
stroke and the cylinder head, and including the steam ports between 
cylinder and lower face of valve. 

Q.—Of what use is it? 

A.—To guard against the possibility of the piston head striking 
the cylinder head and breaking it out by reason of wear of any con¬ 
necting part or change in adjustment of the same, and to cushion the 
piston as stated in answer to previous question. Water is often car¬ 
ried over into the dry pipe by the rush of steam from the boiler and 
into the cylinder. As it is not compressible, the result would be a 
broken cylinder head if there were no provision made for its disposal. 

Q.—Can compression in a cylinder exceed steam chest pressure? 

A.—Yes. For this reason pop or by-pass valves are provided to 
relieve the cylinder of excess pressure. 

Q.—What will do away with compression? 

A.—Inside clearance. 













176 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—What is exhaust? 

A.—The escape of the steam from the cylinder by way of the ex¬ 
haust ports and ways, standpipe, and smokestack after its work in 
the cylinder has been completed. 

Q.—What else might cause back pressure beside the valve con¬ 
struction? 

A.—Nozzles too small to allow free escape of the steam before 
piston reached the end of its stroke. This is more often the cause 
of back pressure than is too much inside lap. An engine will be 
steaming poorly, and other changes not having bettered the condi¬ 
tion, the nozzle tips will be bushed, causing a greater coal consump¬ 
tion and often lessening the engine’s power to do work. 

Q.—What is lap? 

A.—Outside lap is the amount the valve projects over .the edges 
of the ports when the valve is placed centrally on the valve seat. 
Inside lap is the amount the inside edges of the valve project over 
the ports with the valve placed in the same manner. This is some¬ 
times called exhaust lap. 

Q.—What is inside clearance? 

A.—The amount the exhaust port is open with the valve placed 
centrally on its seat. 

Q.—Explain the difference between inside lap and inside clear¬ 
ance. 

A.—Inside lap is given the valves to delay the escape of steam 
from the cylinders up to the point of back pressure, and is desirable 
on all locomotives not employed in fast train service. Inside clear¬ 
ance is given to valves to allow the early escape of steam from the 
cylinders, and is used on engines in extra fast train service where 
speed is desired without regard to economy. 

Q.—What is meant by the expression in regard to valves of ‘dine 
and line?” 

A.—That the inside edges of the valve line with the edges of the 
exhaust port. 

Q.—How can a cylinder packing blow be distinguished? 

A.—It will be intermittent with each revolution of the wheels, 
ceasing as piston nears end of stroke and recommencing as steam 
pressure is applied to piston head. The blow has a roaring sound. 
This blow can be located by putting crank pin on quarter on side to 
be tested and giving engine steam with both cylinder cocks open. 
If the cylinder packing blows, steam will escape from both cylinder 
cocks in good volume. 

Q.—How does a valve blow sound? 

A.—Sharp. Something like a whistling sound. 

Q.—If a blow is caused from a cocked valve, how could it be 
seated? 

A.—Move reverse lever back and forth several times until valve 
is seated. This defect will not occur with a balanced valve. ' 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


177 


Q.—How can a steam or standpipe blow be located as such? 

A.—The blow.is more noticeable with fire door open. Fire burns 
red and is inclined to come out at fire door. Engine will not steam 
free and is worse on a hill when working hard. 

Q.—How can a blow caused by a valve traveling too far be de¬ 
termined as such? 

A.«—The blow will occur with lever in full gear and cease when it 
is hooked up a little; 

Q.—With a balanced slide valve, of what is a steady blow the 
indication? 

A.—Of a broken strip or a weak or broken spring. 

Q.—How can a test be made for a strip blow? 

A.—Put the crank pin—on the side where the blow is thought 
to be—on the forward center and reverse lever in center notch of 
quadrant with valve covering ports. Open the cylinder cocks. 
Move the reverse lever ahead a little bit; not enough, however, to 
open forward admission nort. Set brake and give engine steam. If 
a strip or spring causes the blow, steam will enter the exhaust cavity 
of the valve and pass down and out of back cylinder cock. Repeat 
the operation with the reverse lever slightly back of center and steam 
will come from front cylinder cock. This proves that steam comes 
out of cylinder cocks from above the valve and not from under it. 
The valve and cylinder on the side where there is a strip blow will 
become very dry on account of the oil going out with the exhaust 
steam before it has had an opportunity to lubricate the valve and 
cylinder. 

Q.—What can be done for an engine with a broken valve seat? 

A.—The place and kind of breakage has much to do with the 
remedy. If it was a forward port that was broken, place the valve 
so as to cover the back steam port and the exhaust port. Discon¬ 
nect and clamp valve stem. Take down main rod and block cross¬ 
head at rear of guides. The main rod is taken down because steam 
having free admission to the front end of the cylinder would cause 
engine to work against itself on forward stroke of piston on disabled 
side. For a broken back port, place valve over front steam port and 
exhaust port and disconnect and block the same as for a broken front 
port, except that it would be best to block crosshead at front of 
guides. A valve seat breakage will usually result in broken or bent 
rocker arms, valve stem or eccentric blade, and the valve gear should 
be examined for trouble of this kind. If bridge is broken between 
steam port and exhaust port, disconnect valve with ports covered 
and clamp it. Leave main rod up. Unless all broken pieces can be 
located, examine cylinder for them and avoid another breakage. 

Q.—What is the remedy when a valve breaks on the road? 

A.—Take up chest cover, in case of a slide valve, or head off with 
a piston valve. Put the broken parts of the valve together so as to 
cover ports if it can be done. Block the valve firmly in place and 
put the cover or head on, as the case may be, and disconnect and 



178 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



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ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


179 


clamp valve rod. If valve is broken so it can not be put together 
and blocked, a block must be used in place of it to keep steam out 
of cylinders. In case of a balanced slide valve a piece of short metal, 
if available, is very serviceable. 

Q.—How would you proceed with a broken steam chest? 

A.—If chest is only cracked, remove casing and wedge between 
studs and body of chest to close crack and hold the sides in place. 
If badly broken, it is best to send for an engine to take train and dis¬ 
abled engine in. Going in to front end and putting a blind gasket 
in steam pipe to keep steam out of steam chest is a rather difficult 
proposition on the road. The fire must be low, or out, and no steam 
admission to front end, so that one can work in there. The delay is 
too great to be tolerated on a busy line. 

Q.—How can the blow from a broken valve yoke be located and 
repaired? 

A.—When a valve yoke breaks off the engine will stop on the for¬ 
ward center on that side, if valves are of outside admission, and will 
stop on the back center on that side if valves are of inside admission, 
as the valve with the broken yoke will go to the front of the steam 
chest and remain there and can not be shifted by moving reverse 
lever. Take out relief-valve cage and move the valve with a small 
bar so it will cover the ports. Disconnect valve stem and clamp it. 
Put a plug of wood through relief-valve cage opening firmly against 
valve and screw relief-valve cage in place to hold plug against valve. 
If yoke is only cracked, drop lever ahead and work a light throttle. 
Engine will be lame but it may hold until a terminal is reached, and 
a greater delay avoided than would occur otherwise. 

Q.—If a valve rod breaks outside of steam chest, what can be done? 

A.—Cover ports, clamp valve stem and take off the broken piece. 
Leave main rod up. 

Q.—What are the main causes of an engine going lame? 

A.—A slipped eccentric or blade, a loose eccentric strap bolt, a 
cracked valve yoke, a difference in the size of nozzle tips on a double 
nozzle engine, or anything that would change the regularity of the 
exhaust sound. 

Q.—If a nozzle tip was gone on a double nozzle engine, how would 
the exhaust sound? 

A.—Two heavy and two light exhausts. 

Q.—What is the position of the eccentric cams on the axle relative 
to the crank pin? 

A.—This depends on the type of valve used, and also the kind 
of rocker. 

Q.—How can & slipped eccentric be located? 

A.—By its position on the axle in reference to the crank pin, by 
the sound of the exhaust, and by the keyways cut in the cam and axle. 

Q.—What are the chief causes of eccentric slipping? 

A.—Deficient lubrication or strap too tight on eccentric, causing 
it to bind, or so loose as to allow dust to pass freely in between cam 



180 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


LINSTROM’S IMPROVED 
ECCENTRIC 



The eccentric set screw is done away with, the U-shaped bolt D 
not only holding the two segments A and B together, but also clamp¬ 
ing them to the shaft. 

The two bolts C C serve as dowel pins to hold the two halves of 
the eccentric rigidly together, even if nuts on U-bolt D should become 
loosened. 































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


181 


and strap. Dry valves, caused by lack of oil or water being carried 
over on them from dry pipe. Lack of oil on eccentric may be caused 
by oil hole being stopped up, insufficient packing in eccentric strap 
oil cellar, or plug gone out of the bottom of the same. 

Q.—How can the trouble be remedied? 

A.—See that oil hole is open. If stopped up, it will probably be 
necessary to take strap down to get it open. If the strap has been 
recently closed and i s too tight, loosen the strap bolts and put in a 
liner. If strap is too loose, give it plenty of the best oil you have 
frequently, and have the strap closed when the terminal is reached. 
Do not put water on a hot eccentric unless you are looking for trouble. 

Q.—Is it advisable to drop the reverse lever down when an engine 
goes suddenly lame? 

A.—No. A change in valve travel might break something. 
Leave the lever up until train is stopped or until satisfied that it is 
only a dry valve causing the trouble. 

Q.—How can a slipped blade be located? 

A.—There will usually be a break in the grease and dust where 
the blade enters the strap. If not, put engine on forward center on 
lame side, set the brake, and give the engine steam with cylinder 
cocks open. Throw the lever back and forth, and if forward blade is 
slipped in but little steam will come from front cylinder cock, and if 
slipped out steam will blow strong from it. Reverse the movement 
of the lever and the opposite condition will prevail. If there is too 
much steam at the front of the cylinder, shorten blade; if too little, 
lengthen it. This is for indirect motion gear. With direct motion, 
where rocker arms move in the same direction, if there is too much 
steam at front end of cylinder, lengthen blade; if too little, shorten 
it. In other words, move the valve toward the heavy exhaust. 
This applies when squaring valves. 

Q.—How can a slipped eccentric be set? 

A.—If a go-ahead eccentric has slipped, put the engine on center 
on disabled side; next put reverse lever in extreme back notch and 
mark steam valve stem at gland, then put reverse lever in extreme 
forward notch and turn eccentric on axle until mark made on stem 
shows at gland. Tighten set screws. This is setting the slipped 
eccentric by the one not slipped on that side. For the back-up 
eccentric, put the lever in the extreme forward notch when marking 
the valve stem, then put lever in extreme back notch and turn 
eccentric on axle until mark on stem shows at gland. Another plan 
is to place the engine on either center on the side having the slipped 
eccentric. For a go-ahead eccentric that has slipped, put reverse 
lever in full forward gear, block the wheels and open cylinder cocks. 
Admit just a little steam to the cylinder, sufficient to show at the 
cylinder cocks. If engine is indirect, and standing on front center, 
move eccentric toward crank pin until steam escapes from front 
cylinder cock and tighten set screws. If standing on back center, 
move eccentric toward crank pin until steam escapes from back 



182 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


cylinder cock and tighten set screws. For a direct connected engine, 
outside admission piston valves, engine standing on forward center, 
if go-ahead eccentric has slipped, move the eccentric away from the 
crank pin until steam escapes from front cylinder cock. If engine is 
direct and has inside admission piston valves, the position of the 
eccentrics is the same as on an indirect engine having D slide valves. 
If the slipped eccentric is next the frame and a long delay will be 
caused through it being necessary to take the other one off to get at 
it, it may be best to send for an engine. Or the cam may be wedged 
on the key, or be so hot that it can not be moved on the axle, when it 
will also be best to send for another engine. Where engines are 
regularly assigned it may save time to mark the blades and eccentrics. 

Q.—What can be done in case a cam or cam bolt breaks? 

A.—For a broken cam, take off broken parts. Disconnect valve 
rod, cover ports and clamp valve rod. For a broken cam bolt, 
replace it. If it is a back-up cam bolt and there is no key, or key 
can be removed, loosen set screws to this cam, oil good between cam 
and axle and with lever well ahead on quadrant, proceed with the train. 

Q.—What is done in case of a broken eccentric strap? 

A.—Disconnect on that side is the safest and best way. 

Q.—What is to be done in case of a broken piston valve rod? 

A.—Plumb rocker arm. Take off front steam chamber head and 
push valve over ports until broken stem is together. Clamp valve 
stem and take off broken piece to rocker arm. Replace chest head. 
Leave main rod up. In all cases where main rod is left up arrange¬ 
ments must be made to lubricate the cylinder. 

Q.—In case of a broken transmission bar, what is the remedy? 

A.—Remove the broken parts. Cover ports, disconnect and 
clamp valve stem. Leave main rod up. 

Q.—If transmission bar hanger is broken, how is it repaired? 

A.—Take off broken parts. Block link at top and bottom at point 
of cut-off desired. To reverse engine, blocks must be changed in link. 

Q.—What happens if inside piston valve packing ring becomes 
broken? 

A.—The corresponding end of the cylinder receives too much 
steam and the exhaust from that end will be too heavy. 

Q.—If a piston valve ring is weak or broken, how does it differ in 
result from a leak caused by a by-pass valve? 

A.—With a piston valve ring leak, engine is lame but does not 
blow; where leak is caused by a by-pass valve, engine is lame and 
blows also. 

Q.—What causes a broken cylinder head? 

A.—A front head breakage may be caused by a broken main rod 
or main rod strap, or broken crank pin, crosshead, wrist pin, piston 
rod or loose follower bolt. Back head by anything getting in guides 
and blocking crosshead, broken main pin, or back main rod strap. 
Weak metal or anything getting in cylinder will cause a breakage of 
either cylinder head. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


183 


Q.—How remedied? 

A.—Disconnect valve stem, cover ports and clamp valve rod. 
Take off broken parts. If front head is only cracked, a brace may 
be put from pilot beam against head to hold it. If it is a back head, 
the guides must come down with main rod and crosshead. The piston 
must be removed from the cylinder so it will not slide about and do 
more damage. 

Q.—Where is the proper place to ‘block crosshead? 

A.—At rear of guides ordinarily. In case of a broken back steam 
port it should be blocked at the front end of the guides. The reason 
for blocking at the rear of the guides is that in case the blocking 
should give way less damage would follow than if it were blocked 
at the front. 

Q.—What is done in case of a broken top or bottom rocker arm 
or link-block pin? 

A.—Cover ports, disconnect and clamp valve stem. Remove 
loose or broken parts. Leave main rod up. 

Q.—What can be done in case of a broken link hanger, saddle pin, 
tumbling shaft or tumbling-shaft arm? 

A.—Put a block on top of link block to work engine about half 
stroke and a short block under link block, allowing some room for 
slip of link, for a broken link-hanger pin or tumbling-shaft arm. 
For a broken tumbling shaft, block both links. To reverse engine, 
shift blocks. Remove broken parts. 

Q.—What is to be done in case of a broken reach rod or reach-rod 
arm? 

A.—Block the links top .and bottom, or support the tumbling- 
shaft arms by means of a bar placed across the top of the frames. 

Q.—If a main rod, main rod strap, crosshead, wrist pin, or piston 
rod breaks, what is to be done? 

* A.—Cover ports, disconnect and clamp valve stem. Remove 
broken parts. 

Q.—What valve gears are used on locomotives you are acquainted 
with? 

A.—The shifting link motion, usually known as the Stephenson 
valve gear; the Walschaert valve gear, the Joy valve gear, the Pilliod, 
the Baker-Pilliod. 

Q.—What description can you give of these different valve gears? 

A.—The Stephenson valve gear is actuated by two eccentrics 
secured, generally, to the main driving axle. These eccentrics or 
sheaves are provided with straps to which rods are attached that 
connect with a radial movable link. By means of a sliding block 
the link connects with the lower end of a rocking shaft. The upper 
end of this rocking shaft is attached to a valve rod which transmits 
the motion of the eccentrics to the slide valve. The movement of 
the valve is regulated by the position of the sliding block in the link. 
When that block is near the top of the link, it gives full movement 
to the valve in forward gear. When the block is near the bottom of 



184 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 






Also shomng Method of Blocking any/Si icLeYaLv&for Bremen Valve /Seat 
OlherSrcaKs Inside afthetfteam CKeoZ— 













































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


185 


the link it produces full motion to the valve in back gear. The Wal- 
schaert is of the type known as a radial valve gear, has a single 
crank arm attached to the main crank which performs the functions 
of the two eccentrics in a link motion. The crank arm has a rod 
connecting it to an oscillating link traversed by a movable block. 
A radius bar conveys the motion of the block to the valve rod. There 
is a combination lever attached to the crosshead at its lower end 
and to the valve rod at its upper end. This combination lever 
moves the valve a sufficient distance from the central pogition to 
provide for the lap or lead. 

Q.—What are the chief features of the Baker-Pilliod valve gear? 

A.—It resembles the Walschaert valve gearing in having a 
single crank attached to-the main crank, which by a connecting 
or eccentric rod transmits the motion to the valve, and also by the 
addition of a combination lever which modifies the motion, but 
it does not transfer the motion from the main crank through a mov¬ 
able or oscillating link, but through a system of bell cranks the 
motion of which is modified by a suspended radius bar attached to 
the reach rod. The lower arm of the bell crank is attached to the 
valve rod by suitable connections. 

Q.—What are the principal features of the Joy valve gear? 

A.—In this form of valve gear the eccentrics and their equiva¬ 
lents, such as the eccentric crank are dispensed with. The motion 
for the valve is taken directly from the connecting rod. By utilizing 
the backward and forward motion of the main rod and combining 
this with the vibrating action of the rod up and down, a movement 
results which is employed to actuate the valves of engines using 
any combination of lap and lead desired. 

Q.—What is an Allen valve? 

A.—A valve having an extra port that extends over the valve 
cavity from one side to the other. 

Q.—What is the purpose of the Allen valve? 

A.—To increase the steam port opening so that steam may be 
admitted into the cylinder more rapidly than with the plain slide valve. 

Q.—Is the travel of the valve always of the same extent? 

A.—No. The travel of the valve is regulated by the position 
of the reverse lever. When the reverse lever is set in full gear, 
the valve will travel its full stroke. As the reverse lever is notched 
back the extent of valve travel is gradually diminished. 

Q.—What effect on steam distribution results from shortening 
the travel of the valve? 

A.—Its tendency is to accelerate the events of the piston stroke. 

Q.—What are the events of the stroke? 

A.—Admission, cut-off, release, compression. 

Q.—Describe these events. 

A.—Admission is the act of steam entering the cylinder through 
the steam port opened by the valve. Cut-off is the act due to the 
valve closing the port opening and preventing the admission of more 



186 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


steam. Release is the act of opening the exhaust port and permitting 
the steam to escape. Compression begins when the valve closes 
the admission port permitting the advancing piston to squeeze into 
small bulk any steam or air left in the cylinder. 

Following these events of the piston stroke on a valve motion 
model is the proper way to understand them. Ten minutes’ study 
with the aid of a model is worth'a whole day’s study without that 
graphic help. 

Q.—What is the variable lead? What is a fixed lead? Why are 
there two kinds? 

A.—Variable lead is that which varies according to the cut-off 
being regulated by position of reverse lever, as in the Stephenson 
link motion. A fixed lead is that which is the same at all positions 
of lever, as in the Walschaert’s and some other gears. 

The variable lead was a desirable feature of the Stephenson link 
motion, but it had to be dispensed with when outside gears were 
adopted. The adoption of the fixed lead was not a matter of prefer¬ 
ence, but we had to have the outside valve gears, as the modern 
engines did not afford room enough for the Stephenson link motion, 
and the loss of the variable lead was one of the sacrifices made with 
the change, as the outside valve gears give same lead for all cut-offs. 

Q.—What is the difference between preadmission and lead? 

A.—Preadmission is the admitting of steam to cylinder for one 
stroke of piston before the opposite stroke of piston has been com¬ 
pleted, while lead is the admitting of steam after either stroke of 
piston has been completed, but before the return stroke has begun. 

Q.—What is the difference between inside lap and exhaust lap? 

A.—The exhaust lap is on the inside on an outside admission 
engine, and on the outside on an engine having inside admission 
valves. Whatever the type of valve the exhaust lap is the lap on 
that part of valve which controls the exhaust. 

Q.—Will a blow from balance strips of D valve show at the cylinder 
cocks, or will it only show at top of stack when testing engine 
standing? 

A.—It depends upon the position of valve having the defective 
strips. If the engine stands with valve (line and line) on center of 
seat, steam blowing through strips will blow through top of valve 
into exhaust cavity and out through exhaust passage to stack. If 
valve be moved ahead of a central position the inside edge of valve 
will uncover forward port, through which some of the steam blowing 
through strips will pass into cylinder, which will show at forward 
cylinder cock. The same is true of rear cylinder cock if valve is 
moved back of a central position, but the passage through exhaust 
way is most free, permitting most of the steam to go that way. 

Q.—What would one be able to tell by the exhaust as to whether 
an eccentric was not set right or a blade not the right length? 

A.—The sound of exhaust can be relied upon to indicate whether 
the lameness is due to the eccentric or a blade. If it is the blade that 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


187 


is too long or too short there will be an uneven distribution of steam 
at each end of cylinder on that side, making one exhaust stronger 
than the other. If the lameness is due to the eccentric the amount 
of steam admitted to each end of the cylinder will be the same on the 
defective side, but will be either weaker or stronger than the ex¬ 
hausts on good side. They will be weaker if the eccentric is ad¬ 
vanced on the axle too much, and will be stronger if the eccentric is 
not advanced enough. When advanced too much the port opening 
takes- place too early, also the cut-off, for any position of lever. If 
not advanced enough the valve events will all take place too late 
and difference in amount of steam used in the defective side as com¬ 
pared to the other side will make the difference in the exhaust force, 
which indicates the course of lameness. When the fault is with the 
setting of eccentric, the exhausts will not be spaced the proper dis¬ 
tance from those on opposite side, both coming too close to them, 
while in the case of a wrong length of blade one exhaust, the weaker 
one, will take place too soon, while the other will take place too late. 

Q.—What causes piston valve engines to pound or hump when 
shut off, with lever hooked up? 

A.—There is much difference of opinion as to the cause of that. 
Many claim it is due to the absence of compression, saying there is 
none when no steam is admitted to cylinder to compress. A more 
reasonable solution of the problem seems to be that instead of no 
compression taking place with engine shut off, the fact is, it becomes 
greater, since all the air drawn in through relief valves can not es¬ 
cape through exhaust. That portion which remains in cylinder 
when the exhaust is closed is compressed, and, owing to the greater 
density of air, even if the volume was not great at time compression 
began, the pressure would run up much higher than if steam were 
confined, in the cylinder instead of air, the latter being less dense 
and more compressible. This fact is no secret, as there are by-pass 
valves on some of the modern engines that provide for relief from 
the very trouble caused by the compression of air in locomotive 
cylinders when engine is drifting. 

Q.—In what way does the eccentric motion impart the desired 
movement to the valve on a Southern valve gear? 

A.—The motion of the eccentric is imparted to the valve in the 
simplest and most direct manner through the medium of the eccentric 
rod, which has two connections at its forward end, one to the radius 
hanger, the other one at the extreme end of rod connects with the 
transmission yoke. The radius hanger is connected to link block, 
serving as a swinging fulcrum, which, in response to the different 
positions of link block in the stationary link, imparts to the trans¬ 
mission yoke and through it to the bell crank and valve rod in a prac¬ 
tically perfect manner all the variations of the cut-off, and this 
without the lost motion due to slip of link found in other inside as 
well as outside valve gears in use today. The Southern valve gear 



188 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


has no crosshead connections, and there are but eight points of wear 
on each side of engine, .which is much less than in many other gears. 

For the purpose of particularizing the various positions of the 
driving wheel crank (when occasion requires), the 360 degrees 
through which it passes are divided into eight parts; the “upper 



quarter’ ’ represents the crank pin when directly above the main 
axle; the “lower quarter’’ when directly below it; the “forward 
center” locates the crank pin on a straight line between the main 
axle and the cylinder, the “back center” 180 degrees from there. 
The “eighths” are the upper, lower, forward, and back as shown 
by diagram. 






Progressive Examination for 
Firemen—Questions and 
Answers in Detail 


It is the policy of railroads to employ men as locomotive fire¬ 
men, who will be capable in time to become locomotive engineers. 
This requires that a man should have at least a common school edu¬ 
cation, good habits, and be in good physical condition. He should 
also be quick and alert and a man of sound judgment. Having these 
qualifications, advancement will come to those who are conscien¬ 
tious in the discharge of their duties and who devote some of their 
leisure hours to study. As an aid to this end, and in order that there 
may be derived the highest efficiency from a man engaged as a loco¬ 
motive fireman, there is placed in the hands of every man who is 
employed as a fireman, a code of questions and it is expected that in 
the preparation necessary for correct answering of the questions a 
course of study will be necessary, which shall fit him for the work 
which he is expected to perform. His answers to the questions will 
indicate how well he has progressed. 

When a man is employed first as a fireman, he will be given the 
questions on which he will be examined at the end of the first year. 
Having answered these questions satisfactorily he will then be given 
the questions for the following year. Having passed this one, he 
will be given a third and final set of questions on which he will be 
examined before being promoted to engineman. 

The following describes the method and time of holding these 
progressive examinations: 

When a man is employed as a fireman he shall be given the First 
Series of questions and notified that at the end of the first year of 
service he will be required to pass a written and oral examination 
thereon, under the direction of the division mechanical officer and 
air-brake supervisor (or air-brake instructor). 

After passing the First Series of questions, he will be given the 
Second Series of questions and notified that at the end of another 
year of service he will be required to pass a written and oral exam¬ 
ination thereon, under the direction of the division mechanical of¬ 
ficer and air-brake supervisor (or air-brake instructor). 

When he has passed the Second Series of questions he will be 
given the Third Series of questions and notified that before being 
promoted and within not less than one year he will be required to 
pass a written and oral examination before a general board of ex¬ 
aminers. 


190 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


It should be borne in mind, however, that the wording of the 
answers is not, as a rule, considered of much consequence as long as 
the candidate shows that he understands the subject, and any en¬ 
gineer or fireman who can give an intelligent answer to the majority 
of these questions is very liable to obtain the position he seeks, or 
pass his examination for promotion. The form of the question is 
not always the same, the wording often being different, but when 
stripped of all surplus words, mean the same and are susceptible to 
the same answer, and the examiner as a rule makes sure that the 
candidate has not merely committed the questions and answers to 
memory, but that he really and truly understands the various mat¬ 
ters they cover. 

It will always happen that conditions on different railroads vary, 
as, for instance, compound engines are not in service on all roads, 
oil burning locomotives are restricted to those properties where that 
fuel can be economically used, electric headlights have not been 
universally adopted, and so on. For this reason the questions and 
answers on these subjects are given under separate headings, but 
are available in case of need. 


FIRST YEAR’S EXAMINATION 


Q. 1.—What are the obligations of the fireman to the company 
employing him? 

A.—The fireman should always be ready for duty when needed, 
and should be at his home or place of residence ready for a call un¬ 
less given the privilege of a certain time to be away, and he should 
be sure to be back at his calling address when his leave of absence 
has expired. 

Note.—The importance of this lies in the fact that in case of 
emergency, where a man is needed on short notice, he will be avail¬ 
able, and the company assumes that he can be relied on at all times 
when he is given employment. 

Q. 2.—What are the duties of the fireman when called for a run? 

A.—He should get to the roundhouse as soon as possible, making 
sure that he is there in ample time to prepare his engine for the run 
without delay. 

Q. 2 %.—What are the duties of the fireman on arrival at the 
roundhouse previous to going out on a trip? 

A.—He should report to the engine despatcher or foreman in 
charge, and find out which engine he is to get, see that all firing tools 
are on the engine and in good condition, draw the necessary supplies 
for the trip (such as oils, waste, packings, extra water glasses and 
lubricator glasses with gaskets, etc.), see that the fire is in good con¬ 
dition and ready for the trip, and while examining fire note the 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


191 


condition of the fire-box sheets and flues, examine the grates and the 
ash pan, see that there is a full supply of coal, water, and sand, and 
that lights are in proper condition for use and in their proper place, 
see that the necessary flags, fusees and torpedoes are on the engine, 
and read all bulletins. 

Q. 3.—Upon arriving at the engine what are your first duties? 

A.—To see that the boiler has plenty of water in it to protect the 
crown sheet, by trying the gauge cocks and comparing them with 
the water glass, then see that the fire is in proper condition. 

Q. 4.—Have you acquired the habit of comparing time with the 
engineer’s time and do you insist on seeing all train orders? 

A.—Yes. 

Note.—The importance of seeing all train orders is that it is a 
protective act; not only do you protect yourself, but others as well, 
when you know where the meeting points are, and it enables you to 
handle the fire in the most economical and scientific manner. 

Q. 5.—What is the most important duty of the locomotive fireman? 

A.—To produce the greatest amount of steam with the least pos¬ 
sible amount of fuel. 

Note.—The cost of fuel on the railroad is one of its greatest ex¬ 
penditures, and the fireman who can produce the necessary heat to 
evaporate the greatest amount of water with the least amount of 
fuel consumed is the most valuable man—his economy will more than 
pay his salary. 

Q. 6.—Does a knowledge of the principles of combustion, from a 
scientific point of view, aid in fuel economy? Why? 

A.—Yes, because if a fireman knows just the conditions necessary 
(and how they are obtained) in fire-box to produce the greatest 
amount of heat, he will be able to produce the heat many times when 
conditions are not the best. 

Q. 7.—What is the composition of “bituminous” coal? 

A.—Bituminous coal is composed of carbon (fixed and free), hy¬ 
drogen, water, oxygen, nitrogen, and ash. 

Note.—The fixed carbon is what we call coke and the free carbon 
is the part that goes away as black smoke if not consumed in the 
fire-box, the hydrogen is a gas and produces great heat, the ash is 
the residue of combustion, and if clinkers are formed it shows that 
the coal had some iron and sulphur in it, which is called by the 
chemist “iron perides.” 

Q. 8.—What are the heat producing substances in the bituminous 
coal? 

A.—Carbon and hydrogen. 

Q. 9.—What is combustion or of what does burning consist? 

A.—Burning or combustion is the chemical combination of a fuel 
element with oxygen. 

Q. 10.—What three things are essential to produce combustion? 

A.—To produce burning or combustion it is necessary to have 
the oxygen, the fuel and the temperature at which they will combine. 



192 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 11.—From what source do we get the oxygen that combines 
with and burns the carbon and the gases? 

A.—We get the oxygen from the atmosphere. 

Note.—The oxygen is one-fifth part of the air we breathe, the 
other four-fifths being nitrogen. 

Q. 12.—Are we liable to get too much oxygen for perfect com¬ 
bustion of the fuels? Why? 

A.—No, we are not liable to get too much oxygen, because the 
fuel elements will not take more than they need to make the right 
combination. 

Q. 13.—In what proportions do the oxygen and carbons combine 
and what are the results? 

A.—The proper proportion of oxygen to combine with carbon is 
two parts of oxygen to one part carbon, but carbon will combine 
with one part of oxygen to one part of carbon, and in this combination 
it will produce only one-third the heat that results from the proper 
combination. 

Q. 14.—How does the hydrogen combine with the oxygen? 

A.—Hydrogen requires but one part oxygen for two parts hydro¬ 
gen and will not combine in any other way. 

Note.—Hydrogen is one-sixteenth the weight of the air and being 
very light will escape to the atmosphere unconsumed unless the 
oxygen is in fire-box to combine with it. 

Q. 15.—Is it a good plan to have more oxygen in fire-box than is 
used? Why? 

A.—Yes, because the excess amount will be used when the fresh 
fuel is first placed in fire-box and the gases are being rapidly given off. 

Q. 16.—How is forced draft created in the fire-box? Why is 
it necessary? 

A.—The forced draft is created by the exhaust forming a 
partial vacuum in the front end (smoke-box) and the air, which will 
flow into any space which is not already filled with something as 
dense as the air, will flow up through the fire and furnish the oxygen 
for burning. It is necessary to create the forced draft in order 
to get the required amount of oxygen into the fire-box for the rapid 
burning of the fuel to produce the heat and steam for the cylinders. 

Q. 17.—Describe the condition in which your fire should be when 
ready for the trip, and say what you would do to get it in that con¬ 
dition with either bituminous or anthracite coal? 

A.—The fire should be level and burning brightly and free from 
clinker or any dead spots. To get the fire in proper condition, I 
would clean out all ashes and clinkers, put fresh fuel in the light 
spots, adding a little at a time until the fire was level and of the 
proper thickness. 

Q. 18.—State how you would fire the engine while running along, 
to obtain the best results, with either bituminous or anthracite coal? 

A.—I would supply the fuel to the fire as it was being consumed, 
keeping the fire of an even depth and burning at a dazzling white 


$ 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


193 


heat all over, by firing into the lightest spots in small charges, in that 
manner producing all the heat possible and wasting none of the fuel. 

Note.—The coal should be broken up into small pieces for best 
results. 

Q. 19.—What would you do with the coal'to prepare it for the 
fire so that best results would obtain in heat and economy? 

A.—I would break the coal up into pieces about the size of an 
apple to prepare it for the fire. 

Q. 20.—Why is it very important that bituminous coal should be 
broken up so that the pieces will not be larger than an apple before 
being thrown into the fire-box? 

A.—Because the oxygen must be in actual contact with the fuel 
for burning, and by having the coal broken up into small pieces 
it exposes a larger surface to the oxygen, consequently getting more 
of the fuel burning at once, creating greater heat. 

Q. 21.—In what condition should the fire be maintained in regard 
to its depth and thickness with either bituminous or anthracite coal? 

A.—The fire should be kept at a proper thickness and even all 
over, to prevent any holes being torn in it which will allow cold air 
to reach the flues, and at the same time thin enough to admit sufficient 
air to furnish the oxygen to combine with the fuels that are in the 
form of gases above the fire. 

Q. 22.—Does the amount of air admitted to the fire-box have any 
influence on the amount of fuel consumed or heat produced? State 
why it does. 

A.—Yes, unless the necessary amount of oxygen is present in 
the fire-box to combine with the gases as fast as they are given off, 
they will go out through the flues (helped by their lightness and 
the forced draft) unconsumed and a total loss, and all the heat 
we will get is from the fixed carbon which will be only about one- 
third or one-fourth of what we should hav.e gotten from the fuel 
placed in the fire-box. 

Q. 23.—Why is it important that the fire be kept at an even 
depth all over and free from clinkers and ash? 

A.—It is important that the fire be of an even thickness all over 
to insure the air, of which the oxygen is a part, be admitted in the 
same volume at all points so that the oxygen will come in actual 
contact with the fuel and keep the fire burning brightly over its 
entire surface, and the temperature high enough for the combination 
of the oxygen with the fuels. 

Q. 24.—At what temperature do the fuels combine with the 
oxygen? 

A.—Best results obtain with a temperature of not less than 1,800 
degrees. 

Q. 25.—What is the temperature in the fire-box when the fire is 
burning brightly all over its surface. 

A.—It is from 2,200 to 2,800 degrees Fahrenheit. 



194 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 26.—Does the nitrogen which enters the fire-box benefit the 
fire? If not, what is the effect of it? 

A.—No, the nitrogen is a dead loss, but must be passed through 
the fire-box to get the oxygen that is mixed with it in the air, and it 
uses up some of the heat in the fire-box. 

Q. 27.—In what manner does the condition of the fire with regard 
to depth, holes, banks, or clinkers affect the admission of air? 

A.—If the fire is too thick the air can not get through it in suffi¬ 
cient quantity; if there are holes in the fire the air will take the line 
of the least resistance and enter the fire-box in large quantities and 
pass through the flues cooling them as well as the temperature of 
the fire-box, and the air does not come up through the fire where it 
will touch the fuels with the oxygen and there can be no burning. 
Banks and clinkers force the air to come up through the thinner 
parts of the fire so the fuel on top of the bank or clinker gets no 
oxygen and produces no heat. 

Q. 28.—What are the effects of too strong a draft? 

A.—Too much air will be drawn up through the fire, reducing the 
temperature in fire-box, and the gases which are very light will pass 
out through the flues before they have time to burn. 

Q. 29.—What bad effects would follow carrying too heavy a fire. 

A.—Air could not get through the fire in sufficient quantities to 
furnish the oxygen to burn the gases, and the best part of the fuels 
would be lost. 

Q. 30.—What bad effects would follow carrying too light a fire? 

A.—Too much air would enter the fire-box and cool the gases 
below the igniting point and they would be wasted. 

Q. 31.—If while the engine is standing the fire becomes very light 
and thin, what effect would starting a heavy train have on the fire? 

A.—It would tear holes in the fire. 

Q. 32.—What harm would result from putting more than three 
or four scoops of coal on the fire at one time, under working condi¬ 
tions, with bituminous? with anthracite? 

A.—With bituminous coal it will start a bank which will turn 
into a clinker and cut out part of your grate surface; with anthracite 
coal it would cause holes to be torn in the fire. 

Q. 33.—What are the advantages of utilizing the entire grate 
surface? 

A.—You have more fuel burning and will produce more heat and 
steam. 

Q. 34.—How can you prevent coal from being forced through the 
flues and out through the stack? 

A.—By keeping the fire free from banks and clinker, of an even 
depth and sufficiently heavy to meet requirements. 

Q. 35.—Is there a serious loss from this cause? If so, what 
conditions tend to increase it? what conditions will decrease it? 

A.—Yes, having the fire too light, having holes in the fire, clinkers 
and banks in the fire or the exhaust too sharp will increase the waste. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


195 


Having the fire of proper thickness, free from clinkers and banks and 
even all over with plenty of oxygen being supplied through the fire, 
will tend to decrease the waste. 

Q. 36.—What causes a pull at the fire-box door when the engine 
is working? 

A.—By having the fire too heavy, badly clinkered or banks in it, 
or with the dampers to ash pans closed or draught openings shut off 
so there is not sufficient air entering through the fire, to fill the 
vacuum formed by the exhaust, atmospheric pressure on the fire-box 
door causes the pull. 

Q. 37.—What will cause the engine to tear holes in the fire? 

A.—By having the fire lighter in spots than it should be, or by 
allowing clinkers and banks to form, compelling the air to come 
through the free spots with great force. 

Q. 38.—What will cause dead spots in fire, with bituminous or 
anthracite coal? 

A.—Dead spots are formed in a bituminous or anthracite coal fire 
by neglecting to fire evenly and supply fuel as it is burned, or by 
clinkers keeping the air from furnishing the oxygen to keep up the 
burning in that spot. 

Q. 39.—Will improper firing cause banks and clinkers to form in 
the fire-box? What are the bad results from this? 

A.—Yes, clinkers and banks are formed by not firing evenly at 
all times, and the bad results from clinkers and banks are fuel wasted, 
grate surface not all being used, dead spots formed, low steam 
pressures, flues and fire-box seams caused to leak. 

Q. 40.—What is the cause of the drumming in the fire-box when 
engine is shut off? How can you avoid it? 

A.—Drumming in the fire-box is caused by the oxygen and gases 
in the fire-box mixing in proper proportions to explode. To stop it 
either admit more air by opening the fire-box door, or reduce the sup¬ 
ply of air by closing the dampers to ash pan openings. 

Q. 41.-~-What are the effects, good or bad, of raking the fire when 
the engine is working? 

A.—Bad; it will cause clinkers and holes to form in the fire. 

Q. 42.—Describe the ash pan and say what its duties are. 

A.—The ash pan is box like in shape, made of iron or steel, and is 
suspended under the grates. The duty of the ash pan is to catch 
ashes and cinders as well as live coals that fall through the grates 
and prevent setting fires; it also provides a means of controlling the 
flow of air through the fire. 

Q. 43.—Why is it important that ash pan dampers and slides .be 
kept closed while on the road, especially in dry, hot seasons? 

A.—The dampers and slides should be kept closed to prevent live 
coals from falling out of ash pans and setting fires. 

Q. 44.—Why are the damper and netting openings provided in 
ash pans? 




196 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—To furnish openings for the air to enter the ash pan under 
the fire, and the dampers provide a means for controlling the admis¬ 
sion of air to the ash pan and in that manner control the draft on 
the fire. 

Q. 45.—Why are grates made to shake? 

A.—The grates are made to shake so that clinkers may be broken 
up and ashes shook through them into the ash pan. 

Q. 46.—When should the grates be shaken? Why? 

A.—The grates should be shaken when the engine is not working 
steam, because to shake the grates when engine is working will cause 
holes to form in fire. 

Q. 47.—Does any loss occur from shaking the grates too fre¬ 
quently or too severely? 

A.—Yes, the fire is made too thin and much good coal is shaken 
into ash pan. 

Q. 48.—What would you do in case of a disconnected grate? 

A.—I would try to connect it up, if impossible to do that would 
straighten it up so that the fingers would not be burned off. 

Q. 49.—What would you do in case of a broken grate? 

A.—I would cover the opening with pieces of iron or stone to keep 
the coal from dropping into ash pan, and keep the cold air from 
entering fire-box. 

Q. 50.—If clinkers form on the grates, what will be the effect 
on the fire, and how would you avoid it? 

A.—Clinkers on grates shut off heating surface of the fire, and 
cause dead spots, and will cause the exhaust to tear holes in the fire. 
I would avoid this by keeping the fire clean and firing evenly all the 
time. 

Q. 51.—What will be the effect of allowing the ash pan to become 
filled with ashes and clinkers? 

A.—With the ash pan filled, the draft is shut off and air can not 
enter in sufficient quantities through the grates to furnish the oxygen 
for burning, and the grates are liable to burn. 

Q. 52 .—Do you consider it beneficial or otherwise to admit air 
above the surface of the fire? 

A.—No, it is not good practice to admit air above the fire, because 
it cools the gases below the igniting temperature and much of the 
best heat producing part of the fuel is wasted; it also tends to cause 
the flues to leak. 

Q. 53.—What effect does opening the door have on the fire? 

A.—It deadens the fire, because the oxygen is not coming up 
through the fuel nor getting in contact with it. 

Q. 54.—Is it good practice to leave the fire-box door open longer 
than is absolutely necessary while the engine is working? Why? 

A.—No, because the forced draught will cause large quantities 
of cold air to be drawn through the flues, contracting them and 
causing them to leak. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


197 


Q. 55.—What is black smoke and is it combustible? 

A.—Black smoke is small particles of carbon going away uncon¬ 
sumed. It is combustible and will produce great heat if it has the 
oxygen present to combine with and the proper temperature for com¬ 
bination at the time it is given off as free carbon from the fire. 

Q. 56.—Why does the black smoke clear up so quickly when 
fire-box door is opened? 

A—Because the oxygen for its burning is admitted in sufficient 
quantity to combine with the gases and consume them, resulting 
in a colorless gas. 

Q. 57.—What effect has the stoppage of a number of the boiler 
flues? 

A.—It reduces the heating surface and causes the draft on the 
fire to be unequally distributed. 

Q. 58.—What harm may tollow if a bank be allowed to form and 
remain against the flue sheet? 

A.—The lower flues are cooled off and will be weakened and will 
begin to leak, besides a clinker will form and cold air will pass up 
between it and the flue sheet. 

Q. 59.—Has improper firing a tendency to cause the flues to leak? 
How? 

A.—Yes, by causing the temperature in fire-box to vary, the con¬ 
tinual expansion and contraction of the sheets and flues weakens 
them and makes them leak. 

Q. 00.—In descending a long gradient where it is necessary to 
inject water into the boiler, how should the fire be regulated? 

A.—In such cases the fire ought to be maintained sufficiently 
active to keep the incoming water up to the temperature of the 
steam. When that is not done the comparatively cool water inside 
the boiler may have disastrous effect upon flues and fire-box sheets. 

Q. 61.—Is it possible for the water inside of the boiler to have a 
lower temperature than the steam? 

A.—That is possible and it happens frequently. There is so 
little circulation inside the boiler when an engine is drifting that 
the incoming water may not be affected by the steam heat. When 
this condition exists the stream pressure will drop suddenly when the 
throttle is opened when the end of the grade is reached. Keeping the 
fire active while the engine is drifting has the effect of converting 
the incoming water into steam, thereby maintaining the water and 
steam at the same temperature. 

Q. 62.—What is the force most active in stimulating the fire for 
generating steam in a locomotive boiler? 

A.—The exhaust steam passing through the smokestack. 

Q. 63.—Explain the draft-creating action of the exhaust steam. 

A.—The exhaust steam rushing through the smokestack at great 
velocity induces a movement of the gases in the smoke-box toward 
the atmosphere so that steam acts to some extent as a piston pumping 
out the gases, the combined action producing a partial vacuum in 




198 


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the smoke-box. This partial vacuum draws the gases through the 
flues and fire-box, while the pressure of the atmosphere forces air 
through the grates, thereby stimulating the fire. 

Q. 64.—What is a spark arrester? 

A.—A spark arrester consists of an obstruction placed in the 
smokestack or in the smoke-box on which the sparks strike before 
they get outside. There is also a wire netting to arrest the sparks 
that otherwise would escape into the atmosphere. 

The spark arrester formerly consisted of a cone and netting 
placed in the smokestack. The modern practice is to use a plate 
of iron sloping in front of the flues which projects the sparks into 
an extended smoke-box. A wire netting for stopping the emission 
of sparks is spread between the flues and the smokestack opening. 

Q. 65.—What are locomotive draft appliances? 

A.—These consist of an exhaust nozzle and the plate already 
mentioned as extending from above the upper row of flues. This 
plate, called a diaphragm, is also employed to make the gases pass 
uniformily through the different rows of flues. It is also used to 
make the fire burn evenly, which results from the flues drawing 
the gases evenly from the fire-box. 

Some engines have a petticoat pipe or lift pipe interposed between 
the exhaust nozzle and the smokestack. That pipe is sometimes 
used to regulate the draft through the flues. 

The diamond-stack form of engine has a petticoat or lift pipe 
in the smoke-box set above the exhaust nozzle and extending within 
a few inches of the base of the smokestack. Some lift pipes have a 
movable sleeve which is used to regulate the draft through the flues. 

Q. 66.—What is a boiler flue? 

A.—It is a plain iron or steel pipe about two inches in diameter, 
extending the length of the boiler secured to tube plates. The flues 
are surrounded by the water in the boiler and transmit the greater 
part of the heat generated in the fire-box. 

The invention of the multi-tubular boiler—that is, putting a 
multitude of flues in a boiler—first made a high speed locomotive 
possible. 

Q. 67.—What is the most common causes of leaky flues? 

A.—Abrupt changes of temperature, such as injecting much 
water when the fire is low; permitting cold air to strike the flues and 
using the blower after the fire is drawn. 

Q. 68.—How would you fire a boiler that had leaky flues? 

A.—Fire so that the fire would be kept uniform and avoid opening 
the door more than was positively necessary. 

Q. 69.—When there are indications that steam would begin to 
blow off, how would you check the heat? 

A.—By closing the dampers and putting the fire door upon the 
latch. 

Q. 70.—As a fireman would you be interested in watching the 
water level, and why? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


199 


A.—Certainly. It is only by watching the water level that I 
could co-operate with the engineer. 

Q. 71.—What is the purpose of a brick arch in the fire-box? 

A.—A brick arch lengthens the journey of the gases from the fire 
to the entrance of the flues promoting the admixture that produces 
the maximum possible heat; it maintains an intensely hot body 
where the gases have to pass, with the result that gases are fre¬ 
quently ignited that without the arch would pass into the flues 
without heating vitality. The brick arch is an excellent spark 
arrester, and it also prevents cold air from passing directly into the 
flues, thereby preventing leakagb of the flues and fire-box sheets. 

Q. 72.—When and for what purpose is the use of the rake upon 
the fire desirable? 

A.—When the surface of the fire is caking and obstructing the 
passage of air through the mass. 

Q. 73.—What would you consider to be abuse of a boiler? 

A.—Heaping a heavy load of coal into the fire-box at one firing, 
cooling the boiler by running with the fire door open, irregular use 
of the injector and operating the injector when steam is shut off. 

Q. 74.—Are there any advantages for a boiler to have large grate 
area? 

A.—Under certain limitations a large grate area permits of slow 
combustion and promotes economy of fuel. The grate surface may, 
however, be so large that the intensity of heat necessary to consume 
all the fuel gases will not be reached. Some railroad companies find 
it economical to put dead grates in some classes of engines having 
very large grate areas. 

Q. 75.—Why is it necessary to provide for a liberal supply of air 
to promote combustion in a locomotive fire-box? 

A.—Because the oxygen in the air is essential in the act of com¬ 
bustion, which is a chemical combination of oxygen and carbon, the 
latter being the principal element in the fuel. 

Q. 76.—Is it possible to use too much air in promoting combus¬ 
tion, and what is the result? 

A.—Using more than the necessary quantity of air is wasteful 
for the superfluous air has to be heated to the same temperature 
as the vital gases, thereby wasting heat. 

Q. 77.—What results from the fire receiving a supply of air inade¬ 
quate to effect complete combination? 

A.—A form of gas is generated from the fuel which is of inferior 
heating quality. 

Q. 78.—Are you familiar with any simple experiment that will 
illustrate the effect of too little and of too much air in promoting 
combustion? 

A.—That can be shown by a common kerosene lamp. The admis¬ 
sion of too much air will make the flame smoke and the same result 
will come from restricting the air supply. 



200 


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Q. 79.—In what condition must a fire be kept in order to prevent 
smoke. 

A.—-As bright as possible. 

Q. 80.—In what way would you act to maintain a fire bright? 

A.—Fire frequently and in small quantities. 

Q. 81.—What effects upon the working of the fire has a small 
nozzle? 

A.—With a small nozzle the exhaust steam escapes with such 
violent shocks that it tends to tear up the fire. A small nozzle also 
causes back pressure in the cylinders. 

Q. 82.—How would you prevent the fierce exhaust due to small 
nozzle from tearing holes in the fire? 

A.—By firing heavily. 

Q. 83.—Is the pressure inside the boiler uniform over the whole 
surface? 

A.—The steam pressure is uniform all over but the weight of the 
water adds pressure on the lower part in proportion to the height. 

Q. 84.—Do you recognize any rule concerning the dumping of 
ashes? 

A.—I do understand that ashes should not be dumped close 
to stations or among-switches, road crossings or places where they 
might start fires. 

Q. 85.—Is there any rule covering the filling of the water tank? 

A.—See that it is filled at the usual water stations. Avoid per¬ 
mitting the water to overflow as that is a dangerous practice, espe¬ 
cially in frosty weather. 

Q. 86.—Do you consider it your duty and to your interest to 
study how the engine you are firing may be handled in such manner 
as will result in its performing the full service it is equal to without 
accident or delay, at the lowest possible cost, as respects the fuel, 
oil, and other supplies furnished for its maintenance and use in 
service? 

A.—Yes, it is my duty to perform my duties in the most econom¬ 
ical manner. 

Q. 87.—Do you consider it to your interest to cheerfully comply 
with all the orders issued by your superiors? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 88.—Do you realize that your service as a fireman is merely 
a period of apprenticeship for the position of locomotive engineer, 
and that it is necessary for you to familiarize yourself with all the 
parts of an engine, and the duties of an engineer, so that when needed 
you will be prepared for promotion and the successful performance 
of the duties of an engineer? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 89.—Will you make a conscientious effort to learn the locomo¬ 
tives on this road and the modern methods pertaining to the suc¬ 
cessful and economical management of them? 

A.—Yes. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


201 


Q. 90.—How can you best learn the latest and most modern 
methods in handling and care of the locomotive and its attachments? 

A.—By studying the best books written on the locomotive and its 
attachments and studying the engine from what I learn in the books, 
and by helping the engineer do his work on the engine while out on 
the road. 


AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS— 

FIRST YEAR’S. 

Q. 1.—Name the different parts of the air brake on a locomotive. 

A.—The air pump, discharge pipe, main reservoir, main reservoir 
pipe, automatic brake valve, independent brake valve, equalizing 
reservoir, feed valve, reducing valve, duplex air gauge number one, 
duplex air gauge number two, pump governor, distributing valve, 
inducing valve, brake pipe, double-heading cock, brake cylinders, 
brake cylinder pipe, brake cylinder cut-out cocks, distributing valve 
supply pipe and cut-out cock, non-return check valve with strainer, 
air signal pipe, reducing valve pipe, feed valve pipe, dead engine 
feature with cut-out cock and non-return check valve and strainer, 
release pipe, application cylinder pipe, angle cocks and the necessary 
hose connections for the various pipes, and the pipe connections to 
governor, gauges and the equalizing reservoir, and the choke fittings 
in pipes to the equalizing reservoir, engine truck and tender brake 
cylinders, brake beams, brake heads, brake shoes or liners, brake 
levers, and the rods connecting them. 

Q. 2.—What is the air pump for? 

A.—To compress air for use in the air brake and air signal sys¬ 
tems. 

Q. 3.—What is the main reservoir for? 

A.—To store the compressed air for use in the air system as it is 
compressed by the pump. 

Q. 4.—Why are the main reservoirs on most locomotives in two 
parts? 

A.—For convenience in storing a large volume of air without 
having the reservoir in the way, and to cool the air as much as pos¬ 
sible before it passes into the air system. 

Q. 5.—What other air brake parts are used on engines not 
equipped with the E. T. brake? 

A.—An auxiliary reservoir and triple valve, with the necessary 
pipe connections. 

Q. 6.—What does the triple valve do? 

A.—It charges the auxiliary reservoir, applies and releases the 
brake. 

Q. 7.—What is the auxiliary reservoir for? 

A.—To carry a supply of air sufficient to apply the brake on the 
vehicle to which it is attached. 



202 


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Q. 8.—Where is the air taken from that is used in the brake 
cylinders on engines equipped with the E. T. brake? 

A.—It is passed from main reservoir into the brake cylinders by 
the distributing valve. 

Q. 9.—What other type of brake is used on many locomotives, 
besides the automatic brake? 

A.—The straight air brake. 

Q. 10.—For what purpose is the cut-out cock placed on a branch 
of the brake pipes in the back cab of the double cab locomotives? 

A.—To be used by the fireman to stop the train, in case of emer¬ 
gency when it is impossible to communicate with the engineer, and 
a stop is necessary to avoid an accident. 

Q. 11.—How should an engine be handled on the ash pit to avoid 
or prevent injury to the fire-box and flues? 

A.—The air pump throttle should be closed and the blower worked 
just enough to keep the gases from coming back out of the door, and 
the fire cleaned as quickly as possible, fresh fuel added, and the door 
closed at once, the injector should not be worked while cleaning the 
fire nor until the fire is burning brightly again. 

Q. 12.—Why should the air pump throttle be closed and the 
pump stopped while cleaning the fire? 

A.—To avoid the forced draft which would draw cold air through 
the flues and to prevent cinders and dust from the ashes being drawn 
into the air cylinder of the pump, where it would do harm. 

Q. 13.—Dc you understand that the engineer is responsible for 
the work done by the fireman, and that the fireman is to be instructed 
by his engineer? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 14.—In case of an emergency, such as a bursted flue or hole 
in the boiler which will let the water out, or failure of injectors and 
water becoming low, what should be done? 

A.—The fire should be drawn or killed. 

Q. 15.—How can you kill the fire quickly? 

A.—By covering the stack, closing the dampers and door, and 
putting the blower to work. 

Note.—By covering the stack the draft will be stopped and no 
oxygen be drawn up through the fire. By putting the blower to 
work the gases in front end, resulting from combustion, will be forced 
back into the fire-box, where they will be deadly to the fire, for with¬ 
out oxygen there can be no fire. 

Q. 16.—What is an injector? What is it used for? 

A.—An injector is a device for forcing water into a steam boiler 
against a pressure greater than that which is affording the power. 
It is used to supply water to the boiler as it is needed. 

Q. 17.—What two different kinds of injectors are used on loco¬ 
motives? 

A.—The non-lifting type, which is placed below the water supply 
and has the water running into it from the force of gravity, or thie 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


203 


natural tendency of a fluid to seek a lower level. The lifting type, 
which is placed above the body of water and is so constructed that 
it raises the water up into it. 

Q. 18.—What is a lubricator and its use? 

A.—The lubricator is a device used to feed oil to the steam chests 
and the steam cylinders uniformly as it is needed. 

Q. 19.—What should the fireman be sure to do after taking water 
each time? 

A.—He should be sure to close the manhole to tank so that cinders 
and fine coal cannot get down into the water tank and perhaps stop 
the feed pipe to injector, or damage the injector itself. 

Q. 20.—Why should the fireman accompany the engineer while 
he is making the inspection of engine, reporting the work needed, 
registering arrival and making out the time tickets for trip? 

A.—Because he will learn the names of the parts of the engine 
during the inspection, learn how to properly- report the necessary 
work, register his arrival in the proper manner, make out time ticket 
and delay reports as they should be, receiving the practical education 
necessary for his future vocation in life as a locomotive engineer. 


SECOND YEAR’S 
EXAMINATION 


Q. 1.—What, in your opinion, is the best way to fire a locomotive? 

A.—To fire as lightly as is consistent with the work required; to 
avoid smoke trailing back over the train; to avoid popping; to en¬ 
deavor to maintain a uniform steam pressure under all circumstances, 
and to carry a nice, level fire on the grates, a little heavier at the 
sides and corners, to keep the air from coming through it near the 
sheets as rapidly as in the center of the fire-box. 

Q. 2.—What are the advantages of superheated steam over sat¬ 
urated steam in locomotive service? 

A.—Economy of water consumption; economy of fuel; increased 
boiler capacity and a more powerful locomotive. Superheated steam 
contains a greater amount of energy per pound than dry, saturated 
steam. It does away absolutely with condensation in the cylinders, 
while saturated steam, coming in contact with passages in cylinder 
saddle and walls of cylinder, is immediately cooled, and, therefore, 
part of it is changed back into water, which affects the pressure and 
its capacity to do the work. 

Q. 3.—How is the saving in water produced? 

A.—By eliminating all cylinder condensation present in saturated 
steam, and the increase in volume of a given weight of steam. 

Q. 4.—How is the saving in coal accomplished? 



204 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Because less steam is required to do a given amount of work, 
therefore, less water is evaporated, and consequently less coal is 
required to evaporate the water. 

Q. 5.—How is the increased boiler capacity obtained? 

A.—A boiler will evaporate a certain amount of water into steam, 
which is always on the point of giving up some of its heat and turn¬ 
ing into water, thereby reducing the volume and pressure. Super¬ 
heating eliminates the loss owing to condensation, and increases the 
available useful steam. It also increases the volume of a given 
weight of steam, thereby reducing the consumption of steam re¬ 
quired to develop a certain power, and, therefore, increases the 
capacity. 

Q. 6.—How is a more powerful engine obtained? 

A.—The increased boiler capacity permits working the engine 
at a longer “cut-off’ ’ before a steam failure occurs. 

Q. 7.—What type of fire tube superheater is in most general use 
in locomotive service? 

A.—Schmidt, top header, superheater, which consists of a sys¬ 
tem of units located in the large flues, through which the steam 
passes on its way from the dry pipe to the steam pipes. A damper 
mechanism controls the flow of gases through the large flues. 

Q. 8.—Describe the construction and location of the header. 

A.—The header is a casting divided by partition walls into sat¬ 
urated and superheated steam passages. It is.located in the top 
portion of the smoke-box so as not to interfere with work in the 
smoke-box, and is connected to the dry pipe at one end, and the 
steam pipes at the other. In locating the superheater header, its 
face for superheater unit joints should be square with the tube sheet, 
parallel to the top row of flues, and the correct distance above them, 
to insure correct position of the superheater units in the flues. It 
should be firmly supported at the ends by header supports, securely 
fastened to the sides of the smoke-box. 

Q. 9.—Describe the construction of superheater units and their 
connection to the header. 

A.—The units consist of seamless steel tubing, four in number, 
connected by three return bends. Of the four pipes, two are straight 
and two are bent upward and connected to the header by means of 
a clamp and bolt. One end of the unit is in communication with the 
saturated steam passage, and the other with the superheated steam 
passage in the header. 

Q. 10.—Trace the flow of steam through the top header fire tube 
type superheater. 

A.—On opening the throttle the saturated steam passes through 
the dry pipe into the saturated steam passage end of the header 
casting. From this passage it goes into one end of the unit, passing 
backward toward the fire-box, forward through one of the straight 
pipes and the front return bend, backward through the other straight 
pipe to the back return bend, and forward through the bent pipe and 
upward into the superheater steam passage of the header, from which 
it enters the steam pipes and steam chests. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


205 


Q. 11.—What should be the position of throttle valve when run¬ 
ning a superheater locomotive? 

A.—Superheater locomotives should be operated with as full a 
throttle as working conditions permit, regulating the steam admis¬ 
sion to the cylinders in accordance with the work to be performed. 

Q. 12.—What should be the position of throttle while drifting? 

A.—The position of the throttle while drifting should be slightly 
open, so as to admit a small quantity of steam to the valve chamber 
and cylinder above atmospheric pressure, to prevent the inrush of 
hot air and gases, which destroy lubrication, and also to avoid ex¬ 
cessive wear to valve, cylinder, and piston rod packing. 

Q. 13.—How should the water be carried in boiler of superheater 
locomotives? 

A.—Water should be carried in boiler of superheater locomotives 
as low as conditions will permit. This practice reduces the tendency 
to work water into the dry pipe and units, as the superheater locomo¬ 
tive will use one-third less water than the saturated locomotive. 

Q. 14.—What care should be exercised in lubricating a superheater 
locomotive? 

A.—The engineer should watch very closely the supply of oil to 
the steam chests and he should know that the lubricator is feeding 
constantly and evenly over the entire division, and in accordance 
with the work to be done. 

Q. 15.—Describe the general form of a locomotive boiler. 

A.—It is cylindrical in form. It has usually a rectangular shaped 
fire-box at one end and a smoke-box at the other end. Flues run 
through the cylindrical part, which, like the fire-box, are surrounded 
by water. 

Q. 16.—How does the wide fire-box type of boiler differ from the 
ordinary boiler, and what are its advantages? 

A.—The ordinary “deep” fire-box is limited in width to the dis¬ 
tance between the frames; the “shallow” fire-box sets on top of the 
frames, and over the driving wheels. The wide fire-box is not only 
above the frames, but extends out on each side of the driving wheels. 
The advantage is to obtain a larger grate area in the same length 
fire-box so as to cause slower combustion per square foot of grate 
surface. 

Q. 17.—Why have two fire-box doors been placed in the large 
type of locomotive boilers? 

A.—Owing to the greater width of the fire-box, two doors have 
been placed in the large type of locomotive boilers so that the coal 
can be more conveniently distributed to all parts of the fire-box. 

Q. 18.—Describe a locomotive fire-box. 

A.—The modern form of locomotive fire-box is a rectangular 
shaped structure located at the back end of the boiler. It has a 
door and is composed of two side sheets, a crown sheet, a back sheet, 
and a flue sheet from which the flues extend to the smoke-box at the 
other end of the boiler. 



206 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 19.—To what strains is a fire-box subjected? 

A.—To the crushing strains of the steam pressure and the un¬ 
equal expansion and contraction of plates, stay bolts, etc. 

Q. 20.—How are the sheets of a fire-box supported? 

A.—They are supported by means of stay bolts, screwed through 
the inside and outside.sheets with their ends riveted over. 

Q. 21.—In what manner is a crown sheet supported? 

A.—By means of crown bars or radial stay bolts. 

Q. 22.—What are the bad features about crown bars? 

A.—They are hard to keep clean and frequently cause “mud- 
burned” crown sheets. 

Q. 23.—What are the advantages of radial-stayed crown sheets? 

A.—They are comparatively easy to keep clean and cheaper to 
repair. 

Q. 24.—How are the inside and outside sheets of a fire-box secured 
at the bottom? 

A.—They are riveted to a wrought iron ring, called a mud-ring. 

Q. 25.—Describe the ash pan and its use. 

A.—The ash pan is a receptacle secured to the bottom of the fire¬ 
box, and is provided with two or more dampers designed to regulate 
the admission of air to the fire. It collects the ashes dropped from 
the fire-box and thus prevents their setting fire to bridges, cattle 
guards, and other property elsewhere along the road. Enginemen 
should see that the ash pan slide and hopper bottoms are closed be¬ 
fore leaving engine house. 

Q. 26.—What is a “wagon-top” boiler? 

A.—It is a boiler which has the fire-box end made larger than the 
cylindrical part, in order to provide more steam space. 

Q. 27.—Why are boilers provided with steam domes? 

A.—To furnish more steam space, to obtain drier steam and to 
provide a place for the steam pipes, throttle valve, safety valves, 
and whistle. 

Q. 28.—What must be the condition of a boiler to give the best 
results? 

A.—It must have a good circulation, flues and seams tight, no 
flues stopped up and no leaks at other places, and must be clean 
and free from mud and scale. 

Q. 29.—What is meant by “circulation” in a boiler? 

A.—The free movement of the water so that it may come in con¬ 
tact with the heating surfaces and after being converted into steam 
be immediately replaced by fresh supplies of water. 

Q. 30.—What would be the effect if a “leg” of the fire-box became 
filled with mud? 

A.—There would be no water in contact with the fire-box sheets 
and they would, in consequence, become blistered or “mud burned.” 
(The narrow water space between the inside and outside sheets of 
the fire-box is termed the “leg” of a boiler.) 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


207 


Q- 31.—What would be the result if the fire-box sheets became 
overheated? 

A.—They would be forced off the stay bolts and an explosion 
would occur. 

Q. 32.—Would it be advisable to put water into a boiler after the 
sheets had become bare and red hot? 

A.—It would not. The fire should be killed at once. 

Q. 33.—What effect has the stoppage of a large number of flues? 

A.—The heating surface and draft are decreased by just so much 
area. 

Q. 34.—Why are boiler checks placed so far away from the fire¬ 
box? 

A.—In order to introduce the water into the boiler at as great a 
distance from the fire-box as possible. This permits the water to 
become heated to a high temperature before coming in contact with 
the fire-box and also tends to better circulation. 

Q. 35.—What part of the boiler has the greatest pressure? Why? 

A.—The bottom, because the weight of water is added, in addi¬ 
tion to the steam pressure. 

Q. 36.—What are the advantages of the extension front end? 

A.—To provide room for suitable draft and spark appliances. 

Q. 37.—What is the purpose of a netting in a smoke-box or front 
end? 

A.—To crush the cinder and prevent the large ones from passing 
out of the front end, through the stack. 

Q. 38.—What is the object of hollow stay bolts? 

A.—To immediately indicate that the stay bolt is broken by the 
escape of steam through the small (detector) hole. 

Q. 39.—What will cause the engine to tear holes in the fire? 

A.—Working hard, or slipping with dampers open and doors 
closed, or too thin a fire. 

Q. 40.—Name the various adjustable appliances in the front end 
by which the draft may be regulated. 

A.—The exhaust nozzle, the diaphragm, and the draft pipes or 
petticoat pipe. 

Q. 41.—What object is there in having the exhaust steam go 
through the stack? 

A.—To produce a forced draft on the fire. 

Q. 42.—How does this affect the fire? 

A.—The exhaust steam passing through the stack tends to empty 
the smoke-box of gases, producing a partial vacuum there. Atmos¬ 
pheric pressure then forces the air through the grates and tubes to 
refill the smoke-box, thus causing the fire to burn more rapidly, pro¬ 
ducing a much higher temperature than could be obtained by natural 
draft. 

Q. 43.—Explain what adjustments can be made and the effect of 
each adjustment on the fire. 



208 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Larger or smaller nozzle tips cause less or greater draft on 
the fire; angle and position of the diaphragm does the same, and 
raising or lowering it burns the fire more at the rear or front end of 
the fire-box. The size and position of the petticoat pipe increases 
or decreases the draft through the top or bottom flues. These latter 
adjustments should always be attempted before reducing the nozzle. 

Q. 44.—What does it indicate when the exhaust issues strongest 
from one side of the stack? 

A.—The stack, exhaust pipe, or petticoat pipe are out of plumb. 

Q. 45.—What is the effect of leaky steam pipe joints inside the 
smoke-box? 

A.—Engine will not steam freely. 

Q. 46.—What causes “pull” on the fire-box door? 

A.—The partial vacuum in the front end; excessive “pull” in¬ 
dicates dampers closed, fire clinkered or grates stopped up. 

Q. 47.—If, upon opening the fire-box door, you discover there 
what is commonly called a red fire, what might be the cause? 

A.—That the grates have become clogged with ashes and clinkers 
so that sufficient air could not pass through them to the fire. 

Q. 48.—Is it not a waste of fuel to open the fire-box door to pre¬ 
vent pops from opening? How can this be prevented more econom¬ 
ically? 

A.—Yes, sometimes. By putting the heater into the tank, or 
starting the injector, or by more careful firing. 

Q. 49.—Describe the principle upon which the injector works. 

A.—The action of the injector is due, first, to the difference be¬ 
tween “Kinetic” or moving energy and “Static” or standing energy; 
second, to the fact that steam at a pressure travels at a tremendous 
velocity and if placed in contact with a stream of water, imparts to 
the latter much of its velocity and, besides, is condensed to water 
itself. By imparting this velocity to the water it gives it sufficient 
energy to throw open the check valves and enter the boiler against 
high pressure. 

Q. 50.—What is the difference between a lifting and a non-lifting 
injector? 

A.—A lifting injector will create sufficient vacuum to raise the 
water from the level of the tank. The tubes in a non-lifting injector 
are shaped differently and will not raise the water, but merely force 
it into the boiler. It is necessary to place a non-lifting injector be¬ 
low the level of the water in the tank so the water will flow to it by 
gravity. 

Q. 51-—Will an injector work with a leak between the injector 
and tank? Why? Will it prime? 

A.—Not if a bad leak. It will not prime because the air admitted 
through the leak destroys the vacuum necessary to raise the water 
to the injector level. A non-lifting injector will often work, as the 
water will escape from the leak instead of air being drawn into it, 
as with a lifting injector. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


209 


Q. 52.—If it primes well, but breaks when the steam is turned on 
wide, where would you look for the trouble? 

A.—Insufficient water supply, due to tank valve not open, strainer 
stopped up, hose kinked, injector tubes out of line, limed up, or de¬ 
livery tube cut, or wet steam from throttle. 

Q. 53.—If it would not prime, where would you expect to find the 
trouble? 

A.—Insufficient water supply, or priming valve out of order. 
With the lifting injector the trouble might be due to a leak between 
injector and tank. 

Q. 54.—Will an injector prime if the boiler check leaks badly or 
if it is stuck up? If the injector throttle leaks badly? 

A.—Not if either leak badly. 

Q. 55.—If steam or water shows at the overflow pipe when the 
injector is not working, how can you tell whether it comes from the 
boiler check or the injector throttle? 

A.—Close the main steam valve at the fountain. This will stop 
the leak if it be from the injector throttle. 

Q. 56.—Will an injector prime if primer valve leaks? Will that 
prevent its working? 

A.—The injector will prime, but not so readily as with priming 
valve in good condition. It will not prevent its working, but there 
may be some waste from the overflow. 

Q. 57.—Will an injector work if air cannot get into the tank as 
fast as the water is taken out? 

A.—It will not. 

Q. 58.—If you had to take down a tank hose, how would you stop 
the water from flowing out of the tank that has the syphon connec¬ 
tions instead of the old style valves? 

A.—Open the small pet cock at the top of the syphon. 

Q. 59.—Is any more water used when the engine foams than when 
the water is solid? 

A.—Very much more—one cubic inch of water is equal in weight 
to one cubic foot of steam. 

Q. 60.—How would you prevent injector feed pipes or tank hose 
from freezing in winter when not in use? 

A.—The steam valve should be opened slightly to allow a slight 
circulation of steam through the feed and the branch pipes. The 
heater cock closed, and the drip cock under the boiler check or on 
the branch pipe opened to insure circulation of*steam through the 
branch.pipe. 

Q. 61.—How would you prevent the overflow pipe from freezing 
with a lifting injector? 

A.—By keeping the overflow valve slightly open to permit some 
steam to escape from the overflow pipe. 

Q. 62.—Name the various parts of the injector. 

A.—It consists of the injector body, with a steam valve, a steam 
nozzle, a primer, a combining and condensing tube, a delivery tube 



210 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


line check valve, overflow valve, and water valve. A lifting injector 
has a lifting tube. 

Q. 63.—What may be done if a combining tube is obstructed? 

A.—Remove the steam valve bonnet and with a stiff piece of wire 
force out the obstruction, or uncouple the delivery pipe from the 
injector, unscrew and remove the tubes, then clear the obstruction 
and replace the tubes. 

Q. 64.—How is the greatest injury done to a boiler when cleaning 
or knocking the fire? 

A.—By using the blower excessively, thus drawing cold air 
through the fire-box and flues. 

Q. 65.—Why does putting a large quantity of cold water into a 
boiler when the throttle is closed cause the flues to leak? When is 
this most dangerous? 

A.—When steam is not being used there is little circulation of 
water in the boiler and water entering the boiler at about 150 degrees 
temperature is heavier than the water in the boiler. As the colder 
water will go to the bottom, the temperature will be reduced in that 
part of the boiler, and cause the flues to contract in length as well 
as in diameter. This will have a tendency to pull them out of the 
sheet, thereby loosening them. After the fire has been knocked this 
tendency is much greater; hence, cold water should never be put into 
the boiler after the fire is knocked out. The boiler should always be 
filled before the fire is knocked out. 

Q. 66.—Is warm water in the tank of any advantage in making 
steam rapidly? 

A.—It is. Careful experiments have shown that a locomotive 
boiler will generate 1 per cent more steam for every 11 degrees that 
the tank water is heated. Thus heating the water in the tank from 
39 to 94 degrees would effect a saving of 5 per cent. 

Q. 67.—Then why not heat the feed water to the boiling point 
(212 degrees)? 

A.—If the feed water is heated much above blood heat (about 100 
degrees) it will not condense enough steam in the injectors to cause 
them to work properly. Some injectors will take hotter water than 
others. It would also ruin the paint and varnish on the tank. 

Q. 68.—At 200 pounds pressure per square inch, what is the pres¬ 
sure per square foot on the sheets of a boiler? 

A.—About fifteen tons. 

Q. 69.—What is* the total pressure on the fire-box of a large 
locomotive? 

A.—Over three thousand tons. 

Q. 70.—Give a practical definition of heating surface. 

A.—The heating surface of a boiler includes all parts of the 
boiler that are directly exposed to fire or heat from the fire and sur¬ 
rounded by water. 

Q. 71.—Should an engine be slipped to get water out of the cylin¬ 
ders or steam passages? 

A.—Never. Open the cylinder cocks and start the engine slowly. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


211 


Q- 72-—What does it indicate when the smoke trails back over 
the train and into the coaches after shutting off? 

A. Either poor firing, or else a lack of understanding between 
the engineer and fireman as to where the engine was to be shut off. 

Q. 73—Before shaking grates or dumping the ash pan, what 
should be observed? 

A.—That the locomotive is not passing over bridges, cattle 
guards, crossings, switches, interlocking fixtures, or in yards. 
Promptly extinguish fire on the track where ash pans are cleaned. 

Q- 74.—Which is easier and more satisfactory on a long run, to 
stop and clean the fire if necessary, or to continue to the end of a 
long, hard trip with a dirty fire? 

A.—Stop and clean the fire and thus save fuel and labor for the 
remainder of the trip. Very often an engine failure will be saved 
by so doing. 

Q. 75.—Should you examine the flues to see if they are stopped 
up and leaking, and inspect the grate and grate rigging carefully 
before leaving the engine at a terminal? 

A.—Yes, so they can be reported if necessary. Clean flues and 
grates working well, make a vast difference in the success of a fireman. 
By keeping the flues and grates in proper condition engine failures 
can be avoided. 

Q. 76.—How should cab lamps, signal lamps, oil cans and lanterns 
be cared for? 

A.—They should all be kept clean, free from leaks, and filled be¬ 
fore starting any trip. 

Q. 77.—About how many drops are there in a pint of valve oil 
when fed through a lubricator? 

A.—About six thousand drops. 

Q. 78.—Assuming that five drops per minute are fed to each of 
two valves and one drop per minute to the air pump, how many hours 
would be required to feed one pint of valve oil? 

A.—About nine hours. 

Q. 79.—Assuming that the engine is running twenty miles per 
hour, how many miles per pint would be run? 

A.—About one hundred and eighty miles per pint. 

Q. 80.—How many drops per minute"should ordinarily be fed? 

A.—This will vary according to the size of the locomotive and 
the work to be done. One drop per minute for each cylinder, and 
one drop for the air pump every two or three minutes is usually 
sufficient on small yard engines. This depends on the condition 
of the pump and the service being performed. Four or five drops 
per minute should be fed large engines in slow freight service, and 
from five to seven drops per minute for large engines in heavy fast 
passenger service. Where the brake pipe is in moderately good con¬ 
dition, air pumps in freight service can usually be run with one or 
two drops per minute when handling long trains of cars equipped 
with air brakes. 



212 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 81.—Will any bad results ensue from filling the lubricator full 
of cold oil? 

A.—Yes, when the oil becomes hot it will expand and may bulge 
or burst the lubricator. 

Q. 82.—If a sight feed gets stopped up, how could you clean it out? 

A.—Close the water valve and the regulating valves to other 
feeds. Open the drain cock, draw out a small quantity of water 
so as to bring the oil in the top part of lubricator below the top end 
of oil pipe leading to the feed arm, then open wide the regulating 
valve to the feed which is stopped up. The pressure from the 
equalizing tube will force the obstacle out of the feed nozzle and up 
into the body of the lubricator. Close this regulating valve until 
the feed glass fills with water and then open water valve and start 
feeds. 

Q. 83.—How would you clean out chokes? 

A.—Shut off boiler pressure and condenser valve, remove feed 
valve bonnet and open main throttle valve. The steam from the 
steam chest will blow back through the choke plug, clearing it. 

Q. 84.—What is superheated steam? 

A.—It is the saturated steam separated from the water from 
which it is generated by adding more heat, increasing its tempera¬ 
ture from 100 to 250 degrees Fahrenheit above saturated steam tem¬ 
perature. 

Q. 85.—What is the advantage of superheating or increasing the 
temperature of the steam? 

A.—The increase of temperature in superheated steam augments 
its volume and all the moisture which is sure to be contained in satu¬ 
rated steam, and any particles of water which may have been en¬ 
trained as the steam entered the throttle valve are evaporated. 
This results in a reduced steam consumption, a saving in coal and 
water, and increased boiler capacity. 

Q. 86.—How is the increased temperature obtained by the use 
of the superheater? 

A.—The saturated steam is admitted into a partitioned receiver 
which has a number of 13^-inch pipes attached to it. These are 
located in and extend nearly the full length of the large flues. The 
steam in passing through these 13 ^-inch pipes on its way back to 
the receiver absorbs the heat from the gases passing through the 
large tubes, causing its temperature to rise—to become superheated. 

Q. 87.—How much is the volume of steam increased by super¬ 
heating? 

A.—At temperatures ordinarily used in locomotive practice, for 
each 100 degrees of superheat added to saturated steam the volume 
of a given weight is increased approximately from 16 to 17 per cent. 

Q. 88.—Why is the superheated steam so much more economical 
on coal and water than the saturated steam? 

A.—By superheating, the reduction in the amount of water con¬ 
sumed is from about 15 to 35 per cent for superheated steam receiving 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


213 


150 to 250 degrees Fahrenheit of superheat. If less water has to be 
evaporated to do a given amount of work, it follows that less coal 
has to be used. 

Q. 89.—Which is the better practice, to close the feed valves or 
water valve while waiting on sidings, etc.? 

A.—Close the feed valves. There may be a leak in the water 
valve. 

Q. 90.—How can you tell if equalizer tubes become stopped up 
or broken? 

A.—The stopping of the tubes would destroy the equalization 
and when the steam chest pressure was less than the boiler pressure 
the feed would work too fast and instead of forming into drops the 
oil would enter the feed glass in a stream; if broken the lubricator 
could not be used and the auxiliary oilers would necessarily have to 
be used to lubricate the cylinders. 


AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS— 

SECOND YEAR’S. 

Q. 1.—Name the operating parts of the 9^-inch pump? the 11-inch 
pump? 

A.—Steam piston and air piston connected to same piston rod, 
reversing plate, reversing stem, reversing valve, main steam valve, 
differential piston, receiving valves and discharge valve. The 
parts of the 11-inch pump are the same as those of the 9^-inch pump. 

Q. 2.—Explain the operation of the air end of pump on the up 
stroke? the down stroke? 

A.—When the air piston starts on the up stroke the air that is in 
the upper end of the air cylinder is compressed and forced out by the 
discharge valve and through the discharge pipe into the main reser¬ 
voir, and in the lower end of the air cylinder there is being formed 
a vacuum which causes the atmospheric pressure to raise the receiv¬ 
ing valve from its seat and the air will flow into the cylinder until 
the piston completes its stroke, filling it full of air at atmospheric 
pressure, then the receiving valve drops to its seat of its own weight. 
The piston starts on its down stroke and the air present in the lower 
end of the air cylinder is compressed and forces the lower discharge 
valve from its seat and passes through discharge pipe into the main 
reservoir, and a vacuum is formed in the upper end of the air cylinder 
that causes the air entering receiving strainer at atmospheric pres¬ 
sure to raise the upper receiving valve from its seat, and air flows 
into the upper end of the air cylinder until at the completion of 
stroke the cylinder is filled with air at atmospheric pressure and 
the receiving valve drops to its seat of its own weight. 

Q. 3.—Explain the operation of the steam valve gear of the 93'2- 
inch pump on both strokes. 




214 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—The first stroke of the pump is generally the up stroke; all 
parts being at the lower end of stroke, the reversing valve will be in 
position to connect chamber back of large head to differential piston 
with the exhaust and the steam in the main valve chamber moves 
the differential piston to the right, and it moves the main steam 
valve with it to a position where the admission port to the lower 
end of the steam cylinder is opened and live steam is flowing into the 
cylinder and moving the piston on the up stroke. The hollow or 
exhaust cavity in the main steam valve is connecting the admission 
port to the upper end of the steam cylinder with the exhaust and any 
pressure present in the upper end of the cylinder is permitted to 
escape to the atmosphere. As the piston nears the completion of 
the up stroke, the shoulder on reversing stem engages the reversing 
plate on piston head and is moved upward, moving the reversing 
valve up to a position where the live steam is admitted to chamber 
back of the large head of the differential piston, and pressures are 
equalized on each side of large head to differential piston, neutraliz¬ 
ing it, and the steam pressure on small head of differential piston 
moves the piston to the left and the main steam valve is moved with 
it to a position where the admission port to the upper end of the 
steam cylinder is opened and live steam enters the cylinder, push¬ 
ing the piston on its downward stroke. At the same time the 
admission port to the lower end of the cylinder is placed into com¬ 
munication with the exhaust through the exhaust cavity in main 
steam valve, and the steam used in the up stroke is exhausted to 
the atmosphere. As the piston completes the down stroke, the re¬ 
versing plate engages the button on the lower end of the reversing 
rod and pulls it and the reversing valve down to a position where 
the steam will be exhausted from back of the differential piston and 
the parts move to position for the up stroke. 

Q. 4.—How many strokes (single) per minute should pumps run 
to give best results? 

A.—120 strokes per minute; never more than 140 at any time. 

Q. 5.—What should govern speed of pumps on heavy grades? 

A.—The length of train and the amount of train line leaks. 

Q. 6.—What is the duty of the pump governor, and how is it 
adjusted? 

A.—To control the main reservoir pressure by stopping the 
pump when the pressure reaches the maximum. It is adjusted 
with the regulating spring and regulating nut. 

Q. 7.—Does the governor control the speed of the pump? How 
is the speed controlled? 

A.—No. The speed is controlled by the throttle valve regulating 
the amount of steam admitted to the pump. 

Q. 8.—What is the duty of the triple valve? 

A.—To apply and release the brakes, and to charge the auxiliary 
reservoir. Or another explanation is that it controls the flow of air 
from brake pipe to auxiliary reservoir, from auxiliary reservoir to 
brake cylinder, and from brake cylinder to the atmosphere. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


215 


Q. 9.—Explain the duty of the triple piston, slide valve, gradu¬ 
ating valve, emergency valve and check valve. 

A.—The triple piston controls the feed groove and the movements 
of the graduating and slide valves. The slide valve controls the flow 
of air from auxiliary to brake cylinder, and from brake cylinder to 
exhaust; it also controls the emergency port. The graduating valve 
controls the graduating port. The emergency valve controls the flow 
of air from train line to brake cylinder in an emergency application 
of the brake. The check valve prevents the flow of air from the 
brake cylinder to brake pipe when brake pipe pressure is reduced 
below brake cylinder pressure. 

Q. 10.—How many different types of triple valves are used on 
this road? 

A.—Four: Plain; quick action, style H; quick action, style K, 
and “L” triple. 

Q. 11.—What is the duty of the engineer’s brake valve? 

A.—To control the air from main reservoir to brake pipe, and to 
control the flow of air from brake pipe to atmosphere. 

Q. 12.—Name the different positions of the brake valves: (G-6), 

(H-6). 

A.—(G-6) full release, running, lap, service, and emergency. 
(H-6) full release, running, holding, lap, service, and emergency. 

Q. 13.—Name the two different types of independent brake valves 
used. 

A.—(S-6) independent, and the straight air brake valve (S-3-A). 

Q. 14.—Where does the main reservoir pressure begin and end? 
Where does the brake pipe pressure begin and end? 

A.—The main reservoir pressure begins at the top side of the 
discharge valves in pump and ends at the rotary valve in the brake 
valve. The brake pipe pressure begins at the rotary valve in the 
automatic brake valve and ends at the triple piston. 

Q. 15.—What is the duty of the feed valves? 

A.—To control brake pipe pressure. 

Q. 16.—In what positions of the brake valve is the feed valve in 
operation? 

A.—The running and holding positions. 

Q. 17.—Describe the operation of the feed valve. 

A.—Main reservoir air enters the supply valve chambers and 
forces the supply valve piston over, compressing the spring and open¬ 
ing the supply port, so the main reservoir air can flow direct into the 
feed valve pipe until the pressure in the feed valve pipe compresses 
the diaphragm and regulating spring, allowing the regulating valve 
to seat and cut off communication between the chamber, back of the 
supply valve piston and the feed valve pipe, so that the small volume 
of main reservoir air flowing by the piston head will soon be equalized 
with main reservoir pressure, and the supply valve piston spring 
moves the piston and supply valve to the closed positions. 




216 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 18.—What is the purpose of the hand wheel and stops on (B-6) 
feed valve? 

A.—So that the brake pipe pressure may be changed accurately 
by the engineer, through moving the hand wheel from one stop to the 
other. 

Q. 19.—What is the difference between a feed valve and a signal 
reducing valve? 

A.—The principles of operation are the same, but, while the feed 
valve controls brake pipe pressure and is adjusted for that pressure, 
the reducing valve is adjusted for a pressure of 45 pounds generally 
and controls the air signal and independent brake valve pressures. 

Q. 20.—For what purpose and where are safety valves used on 
locomotives? 

A.—The safety valves are used with the (S-W-A) and (S-W-B) 
brakes, and are connected with the brake cylinder to prevent the 
brake cylinder pressure being excessive; they are adjusted at 53 
pounds. Safety valves are also used with the (E-T) brake attached 
to the distributing valve and are in communication with the appli¬ 
cation cylinder in all positions of the brake except the service lap, 
and by keeping the application cylinder pressure at a safe limit they 
prevent the brake cylinder pressure being excessive; they are 
adusjted at 68 pounds. 

Q. 21.—When should the feed valve be cleaned and lubricated? 

A.—On the first indication of sluggish action, and at least once 
in three months; some will not run over one month. 

Q. 22.—What is the purpose of auxiliary reservoirs on locomotives 
and tenders? 

A.—To carry a supply of compressed air to be used in the brake 
cylinders on an engine in an automatic application of the brakes. 

Q. 23.—Are engines with the E-T type of brake equipped with 
auxiliaries? 

A.—No. 

Q. 24.—Can the driver brakes and tender brakes be released with 
the (S-6) independent brake valve after an automatic application? 
With the (S-3-A) independent valve? 

A.—Yes, the brake can be released with either brake valve, after 
an automatic application has been made. 

Q. 25.—What pressures do the red and black hands of the air 
gauges indicate? 

A.—The red hand on duplex gauge No. 1 indicates main reservoir 
pressure, and the black hand indicates the pressure above the equal¬ 
izing piston, or, as it is termed, chamber D pressure. The red hand 
on duplex gauge No. 2 indicates the brake cylinder pressure, and the 
black hand indicates brake pipe pressure. 

Q. 26.—Does the black hand of gauge indicate brake pipe pres¬ 
sure at all times? 

A.—No, only at the time when brake pipe and chamber D pres¬ 
sures are equalized. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


217 


Q- 27.—What pressures are indicated on the small gauge? 

A.—Brake cylinder by the red hand, and brake pipe by the black 

hand. 

Q. 28.—At what pressures are the safety valves set when used 
with the standard equipment (A-l)? With (E-T) equipment? 

A.—At 53 pounds with standard (A-l), and at 68 pounds with the 

(E-T). 

Q. 29.—Why is a cut-out cock placed on each engine in the brake 
pipe close to the brake valve? When is it cut out? When is it cut in? 

A.—To be used in double heading service, on engine which is 
second in the train or does not have control of the brakes, to close 
communication between brake pipe and the main reservoir or other 
apparatus on the engine. It is cut in when brakes on train are being 
handled by the engineer in charge of the engine. It is cut out when 
the brakes on train are being handled from another engine. 

Q. 30.—Explain the difference between an angle cock and a cut¬ 
out cock, and where used. 

A.—An angle cock has the body turned at an angle of 45 degrees 
for the convenience in making the hose connections; and the body of 
the cut-out cock is straight, and is used in pipe connections. The 
angle cock is used at the end of the brake pipe, where the brake 
pipe hose connections are attached; the cut-out cock is used in pipe 
lines leading to various parts of the brake apparatus on engines and 
cars. 

Q. 31.—What is the duty of the pressure retaining valve? How 
many different kinds in use? 

A.—The pressure retaining valve’s duty is to retain pressure in 
brake cylinder on long grades while recharging the auxiliaries. 
There are two different kinds of pressure retaining valves. 

Q. 32.—Would the absence of a retainer render the brake on a car 
inoperative? 

A.—No. 

Q. 33.—What is the proper piston travel for driver brakes? 

A.—About four inches for driver brake, and seven inches for ten¬ 
der brake. 

Q. 34.—Can a plain triple valve on driver or tender brake cause 
train brakes to go into quick action when a service application is 
being made? Why? 

A.—No. Because it cannot cause any sudden reduction of train 
line pressure, and has no quick action parts. 

Q. 35.—Trace the air through the air brake system. 

A.—Air enters the pump through the receiving ports, and it passes 
by the receiving valves into the air cylinder. There it is compressed 
and forced out by the discharge valves and discharge ports, and 
through the discharge pipe into the main reservoir, and passes from 
main reservoir through the main reservoir pipe to the feed valve; 
then through the feed valve pipe to the feed valve port in rotary 
valve seat and up into cavity in rotary valve face; then down through 



218 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


brake pipe port in rotary valve seat to brake pipe, and through brake 
pipe and cross-over or branch pipe to the triple valve, it enters the 
triple piston cylinder through the ports in cylinder cap, then passes 
through feed groove to slide valve chamber and into the auxiliary 
reservoir, pharging it to an equalization with brake pipe pressure. 
In response to a brake pipe reduction the auxiliary pressure moves 
the triple piston; this opens the graduating port and moves the slide 
valve to service position, so the graduating port registers with brake 
cylinder port and air flows from the auxiliary reservoir through 
graduating and brake cylinder ports into the brake cylinder apply¬ 
ing the brake. In response to an increase in brake pipe pressure the 
triple piston is moved to the release position and the exhaust cavity 
in slide valve connects the brake cylinder port with the exhaust port, 
allowing the air which was used in the brake cylinder to pass out to 
the atmosphere. 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES. 


Q. 1.—What are the fireman’s duties on arrival at the engine 
house previous to going out on afi oil-burning locomotive? 

A.—The fireman should observe the condition of draft pans and 
arch, of burner and dampers; try the regulating valve, and see that 
the burner is delivering fuel oil properly to the fire. He should see 
that the fuel oil is heated to a proper temperature; that the oil 
heaters are in working order, and that there is a proper supply of 
fuel oil, sand and water on hand, as well as the necessary tools for 
handling an oil fire. He should also perform such other duties on 
the engine as may be required of him. 

Q. 2.—How warm should the oil be at all times in the tank? 

A.—The best results are obtained when the oil is heated to such 
a temperature that*the hand can be held on the tank, or to about 110 
degrees Fahrenheit. 

Q. 3.—If the oil is too warm, what happens? 

A.—Some of the qualities of the oil are lost by keeping it too warm, 
and the burner does not work so well and will make it more difficult 
to operate. If the oil is too warm it will give off too much gas which 
is liable to cause an explosion in the oil tank. 

Q. 4.—What tools are necessary for firing purposes on an oil¬ 
burning locomotive? 

A.—The necessary tools include a sand horn, brick hook, and a 
small iron bar for cleaning carbon from the mouth of the burner. 

Q. 5.—What is liable to happen if the heater valve is open too 
much? 

A.—It is very apt to burst the heater hose, as well as to heat the 
oil to too high a temperature, placing an unnecessary strain on all 
the heater connections, causing them to leak. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


219 


Q. 6.—What should be done on approaching stations where addi¬ 
tional supply of fuel oil is to be taken? 

A.—Shut off the fire, close safety and main oil valves and see 
that there are no lamps or lights on the tender. 

Q. 7.—What care must be exercised in the use of lamps, torches, 
or lanterns about oil tanks whether hot or cold? 

A.—Do not carry, nor permit anyone to carry oil lamps or oil 
torches within a distance of ten feet of the tank opening. Pocket 
flash lights or incandescent lamps only should be used around oil 
tank manhole when taking oil. 

Q. 8.—How can oil in the tank be measured without taking a 
light to the manhole? 

A.—By the use of the stick or rod made for that purpose, carrying 
it to the light to find the number of inches of oil in the tank. 

Q. 9.—What precautions must be taken before entering tanks 
that have been used for oil to clean or make repairs? 

A.—Oil tanks should not be entered until thoroughly steamed and 
cooled. For safety they should be steamed from six to nine hours. 

Q. 10.—How should the fire be lighted in an oil-burning loco¬ 
motive? 

A.—See that no one is working under the engine, that the boiler 
is properly filled with water and that it will flow through the gauge 
cocks, and that there is no accumulation of oil in the ash pan or fire¬ 
box, or existing leaks throughout. Steam connection can be made 
to the three-way cock on the smoke arch which will act as blower 
and atomizer. If there are 20 or 30 pounds of steam in the boiler 
it can be operated >with its own blower. See that the front of the 
fire-box is free from carbon or anything that would obstruct it from 
burning; it must have free passage so oil can get to burner. Open 
the front damper, put on the blower strong enough to make the 
necessary draft, open the atomizer valve long enough to blow out 
any water which might be in steam pipe or burner; next close the 
valve and throw a bunch of lighted old waste in front of the burner, 
then open the atomizer sufficiently to carry oil to the waste and 
open the regulator slowly until the oil is known to be ignited—this 
you can see through the fire-box door. Be sure that no oil is 
wasting below the burner or an explosion may result. 

Q. 11.—Should the fire go out and it is desired to rekindle it 
while bricks are hot, is it safe to depend on the hot bricks to ignite 
the oil without the use of lighted waste? 

A.—No; always use waste in rekindling the fire as the bricks are 
not very reliable and apt to do damage from explosive gases formed. 

Q. 12.—What is termed an atomizer, and what does it perform? 

A.—The atomizer is a casting divided into two long ports, with 
an extension lip. The upper port is for oil and the lower one for 
steam. The lip aids the steam in atomizing and spreading the oil, 
which, when properly mingled with the air and ignited, will pro¬ 
duce combustion. The atomizer is located just under the mud-ring, 




220 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


pointed a little upward, so the stream of oil and spray of steam will 
strike the opposite wall a few inches above the bottom if it were to 
pass clear across the box. 

Q. 13.—In starting or closing the throttle of the locomotive, how 
should the fireman regulate the fire, in advance or after the action 
of the engineer? 

A.—In starting an oil-burning engine, bring the oil up gradually 
as the throttle is opened, and keep the movement and amount of 
oil slightly in advance of the action of the engineer, so as to prevent 
the inrush of cold air as the engine is working, which would result 
in injury to the fire-box and flues. Reduce the fire very slightly in 
advance of closing the throttle. This will prevent the engine from 
popping and black smoke trailing over the train. 

Q. 14.—Is it necessary that the engineer and fireman on an oil¬ 
burning locomotive work in perfect harmony and advise each other 
of intended action at every change of conditions? 

A.—Yes, they should work in harmony with one another and while 
the fireman should watch every move the engineer makes it is also 
the duty of the engineer to advise the fireman of every change of 
the throttle so that he can operate his valves according therewith 
and thus save fuel, and avoid black smoke. 

Q. 15.—What is the effect of forcing the fire on an oil-burning 
locomotive? 

A.—It will cause the flues to leak. Always keep an even tempera¬ 
ture in the fire-box. 

Q. 16.—Is a careful regulation of steam and oil valves and 
dampers necessary to obtain the most economical results? 

A.—Yes, the firing valve should be opened sufficiently to make 
it certain that enough oil is being fed to produce a good fire, but not 
enough to cause a waste of oil or a great volume of black smoke. 

Q. 17.—How can you judge whether the combustion is good or 
bad, so the valve may be regulated accordingly? 

A.—When the fire is a dull red color it indicates that the tempera¬ 
ture is less than 1,000 degrees, combustion is incomplete and dense 
black smoke will be emitted from the stack. When the fire is a bright 
red color, it indicates that the temperature is more than 1,800 degrees, 
combustion is very good and no smoke will issue from the stack. 

Q. 18.—How should the flues be cleaned from soot when running, 
and about how often is this necessary? 

A.—A small quantity of sand should be placed in an elbow¬ 
shaped funnel, and inserted through an aperture provided in the 
fire door; while engine is working hard, the exhaust drawing the sand 
through the flues, carries with it the accretions of soot, discharging 
them from the stack. The flues should be cleaned of soot after 
leaving terminals, or after the engine has been standing for some 
time, and as often as found necessary to aid the engine in steaming. 
Just prior to entering points where engine is to be put in roundhouse 
or otherwise detained, attention should be- given the flues in order 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


221 


to leave them clean, as this will aid in putting the engine under 
steam with little delay where the blower alone is to be relied on for 
draft. 

Q- 19-—Is the injudicious use of the blower particularly injurious 
on an oil-burning locomotive? 

A.—Yes, the frequent use of the blower is injurious to a boiler 
and the cold air drawn in through the fire-box injures the sheets 
and flues and will cause them to leak. 

Q. 20.—Is the blower more injurious when a light smoke is emit¬ 
ting from the stack or when a dense black smoke is emitting? 

A.—It is more injurious when a light smoke is emitted from the 
stack. 

Q- 21.—In drifting down long grades, should the fire be shut off 
or burned lightly? Why? 

. A.—The fire should be burning lightly, yet it should not be per¬ 
mitted to get too low, allowing the fire-box to lose its temperature 
and thus contracting the flues and causing them to leak. 

Q. 22.—How should the fire be handled when switching? 

A.—The fire must be regulated according to the work the engine 
performs on each move, and to protect against the possibility of 
the fire being drawn out by the exhaust. 

Q. 23.—Would not some fuel be wasted in this way? 

A.—Very little will be wasted if the fireman watches closely, 
when switching as well as when running. 

Q. 24.—How should the fire be handled when leaving stations? 

A.—It should be burning brightly and sufficiently strong to keep 
the draft from putting it out when the throttle is opened. A little 
smoke should show up at the stack, indicating that the fire was 
being forced a little ahead of the working of the engine. 

Q. 25.—Which is desirable, to use as much or as little steam jet 
atomizer as possible? 

A.—Use as little atomizer as possible at all times. 

Q. 26.—What is the result of too little steam jet atomizer when 
standing at stations or when the engine is working light? 

A.—The oil will not be carried far enough into the fire-box or 
arch and not properly atomized and the fire is very apt to go out. 
The oil will drop from the mouth of the burner into the draft pan to 
the ground and is liable to start a fire under the engine. 

Q. 27.—If too much steam jet atomizer is used with a light fire? 

A.—A disagreeable gas will be formed, causing the fire to burn 
with a succession of light explosions and kicks. It will use too 
much steam and reduce the temperature of the fire-box. 

Q. 28.—When the fire kicks and smokes, what should be done? 

A.—Adjust the atomizer. If this does not eliminate the trouble, 
start the heater, as the oil may be too cold to flow freely. Water 
being mixed with the oil will also cause the fire to kick and smoke. 
In this case drain the water out of the oil tank immediately. 




222 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 29.—How should the dampers be used on an oil-burning loco¬ 
motive? 

A.—They should be opened just enough to admit sufficient air 
to produce perfect combustion, but not enough to cool the fire-box. 
When drifting they should be closed to prevent cold air being drawn 
in, causing flues and stay bolts to leak. 

Q. 30.—About how much smoke do you consider an oil-burning 
locomotive should make under adverse conditions, when the engine 
is steaming weak, but is being crowded by the engineer? 

A.—No more than when an engine is working ordinarily. 

Q. 31.—What color is most desirable at peep-holes in the fire-box? 

A.—A bright red color is most desirable. 

Q. 32.—What will produce the bright red color? 

A.—Feeding only the amount of oil that is properly burned and 
properly manipulating the regulating valves, with no leaks and 
fire-box in good condition. 

Q. 33.—How does the water in the oil affect the fire? 

A.—It will produce popping or kicking with the fire in the fire-box. 
At times the fire will almost go out entirely and then suddenly flash 
up as the oil appears at the burner, and the water disappears. Water 
in the oil produces a very dangerous condition and should be pre¬ 
vented by immediately draining it from the oil tank. 

Q. 34.—Do you consider it advisable to keep the burners clean, 
and how often? 

A.—When furnished with steam blow-out pipes, the burners 
should be blown out before commencing trip so they will distribute 
oil evenly to each side of the fire-box. 

Q. 35.—What position should burner be with reference to level 
and in line with center of fire-box? 

A.—It is very necessary that burners be level and throw flames 
just to clear floor of arch that the full benefit of the heating surface 
may be derived, as the draft has a great tendency to elevate flames 
at opposite end of the fire-box. 

Q. 36.—Are you aware that in course of time the atomizer port 
will become worn too large and will discharge too large a volume 
of steam to properly atomize, and the remedy? 

A.—Yes. In order that the oil may be atomized properly, and 
not flow out in quantities against flash walls before it has time to 
ignite, the lip or bushing should be properly regulated so the steam 
will be restricted at the nozzle and escape with a bursting effect. 

Q. 37.—What is the real object of having the fire-box lined with 
bricks, and will engine steam without them? 

A.—The engine will not steam as well without, as with brick. The 
sheets being in contact with water are too cold to flash the oil readily. 
Hence the use of the “flash wall,” which, heated to a very high 
temperature, very materially aids combustion. 





ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


223 


Q. 38.—Do you consider it your duty to keep close inspection of 
brick work as to need of repairs, such as air entering between brick 
and side sheets? 

A.—Yes. Piaster should be kept between walls and sheets to 
prevent the cold air from being drawn in. 

Q. 39.—Will engine steam if brick falls in front of burners or in 
path of flame, and what may be done? 

A.—No. The bricks should be removed by pulling them out with 
a brick rod or hook through damper of draft pan. 

Q. 40.—Where engine is equipped with an oil-reheater or oil line, 
do you consider it a help to engine’s steaming qualities when used? 

A.—Yes. This heater should be used at all times. 

Q. 41.—Why use second heater? Why not heat it to a high tem¬ 
perature in oil tank with oil heater? 

A.—Too much gas generates. Continually boiling the oil de¬ 
stroys some of the higher qualities and it is more difficult to control 
the flow through regulation valve. 

Q. 42.—Do you consider a vent hole in oil tank advisable, and 
why? 

A.—I do. To permit the gas which accumulates to escape and 
to admit air so the oil will flow freely. 

Q. 43.—Do you inspect your oil pipes and report all leaks? What 
other bad effect has a pipe leak aside from waste of oil? 

A.—Yes. A leak in the pipe will cause oil to feed irregularly. 

Q. 44.—Are you aware that keeping the flues clean is the greatest 
one thing that you can do in regard to fuel economy, and how often 
should they be cleaned? 

A.—Yes. At least every ten miles if the engine has to be smoked 
hard. 

Q. 45.—Do you know that the engine should be working hard 
and at a speed not less than twenty miles per hour when sanding 
flues, to avoid the sand falling to floor of the fire-box and accumu¬ 
lating in front of them? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 46.—Do you realize that on first closing throttle you should 
not adjust fire too low? Explain best method. 

A.—Yes. The steam pressure should be allowed to fall back 
some fifteen pounds before the throttle is closed, and when closed a 
good fire should be left in the box and allowed to cool gradually, to 
avoid leaky flues, broken stay bolts, and cracked sheets, all of which 
are caused by a sudden fall of temperature. 

Q. 47.—How is the flow of oil controlled? 

A.—By valves in tank and pipe connections. 

Q. 48.—Name these valves, their location and purpose. 

A.—The safety valve, the main oil valve, and firing valve. The 
safety valve controls the flow of oil from the fuel oil tank through 
an opening in the bottom sheet of tank to pipes leading to burners. 
This valve is forced to its seat by a heavy spring and held off its seat 



224 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


by a key in the upright rod extending above the top of the tank. 
A rope or chain is attached to this key and also to the cab to cause 
the pin in rod to be pulled in case of a separation between engine and 
tank, and permit the valve to be seated by its spring and avoid a 
waste of oil. The main oil valve is situated in oil pipe under deck 
leading to burner, usually of the plug-cock pattern, connected by 
bell crank, and this connected to some part of the engine by chain, 
in which case it also acts as a safety valve in case of separation be¬ 
tween engine and tender. In other cases it is connected by an op¬ 
erating rod extending above deck of tender, and in case of safety 
valve’s failure it can be operated by hand to shut off the flow of oil. 
The firing valve is usually situated between heater box and burner 
and regulates the flow of oil desired to reach the fire. It has an up¬ 
right rod extending into cab, where it is provided with a handle or 
lever in position to be handled conveniently by fireman when seated 
in cab. 

Q. 49.—When shutting out fire, which valve should be closed 
first? Why? 

A.—The safety valve. So the oil in the pipe may be consumed 
and to see that this valve is in working order. 


THIRD YEAR’S EXAMINATION 

Q. 1.—What are the duties of an engineer on being called, prepar¬ 
atory to attaching to train? 

A.—He should report at the roundhouse on time required by 
rules, or earlier if possible. Inspect the bulletins and sign for those 
requiring [[acknowledgment. Compare his watch with standard 
time and register result in seconds slow or fast, or O. K. Find out 
the number of engine he takes out, and register out. Examine work 
report for work reported and work done at that point while engine 
was in. Go to engine, inspect condition of crown sheet and fire-box 
and flues, and note condition of fire. Try gauge cocks to ascertain 
water level and compare water glass with the try cocks, blowing out 
the water glass and trying stop cocks in upper and lower mountings 
to know that they are free and will close properly when needed, then 
open each stop cock the same to insure a perfect equalization and a 
true water level indicated in the glass. Try both injectors and know 
that they are O. K. See that you have the necessary supplies of 
coal, water, sand, firing and hand tools and other tools and extras 
required, signal lamps and flags and safety devices. Fill lubricator, 
start air-pump working slowly with drain cocks open, inspect engine 
and tender thoroughly, starting at a given point and examining ash 
pans and all parts underneath engine and tender, and connections 
between engine and tender, as well as all parts outside, noting 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


225 


especially that parts having work done on them are properly replaced, 
adjusted, and secured with split-keys when necessary. Examine 
headlight and tail-light to know that they are in perfect condition, 
and finish inspection at starting point where it began. 

Climb up on engine and increase speed of air pump, take engine 
oiler and oil around, furnishing lubrication to all parts requiring it, 
adjust oil feeders in cups having feeders, open angle cocks to train 
and signal lines at pilot and rear of tender to free them of cinders, 
dirt and moisture. Separate hose connections between engine and 
tender for same purpose. 

When proper air pressures are accumulated try automatic brakes, 
noting piston travel and whether they apply properly and hold on 
at least three minutes, then try the independent or straight air brake 
in the same manner and note whether the brakes release in proper 
manner, being sure that brakes are operative on both engine and 
tender and piston travel properly adjusted. Try the air sander de¬ 
vice to be sure that sand flows freely on both sides. Try the other 
devices operated by compressed air, such as bell ringer, fire doors, 
etc., to know they work right, start cylinder feeds to lubricate about 
ten minutes before attaching engine to train. 

Note.—It takes a drop of oil about seven minutes to reac steam 
chest after it leaves sight feed glass. 

Q. 2.—What tools and supplies do you require starting on trip? 

A.—Name the necessary hand and firing tools, classification 
lamps, hand lamps, markers, flags, and so forth, that your rules pre¬ 
scribe, being sure to name coal, oil, water, sand, extra brasses, head¬ 
light wick and chimney or carbons (depending on kind of light in use), 
water glass and gaskets, lubricator glasses and gaskets, colored plates 
for markers, replacers, cable chain, pinch bar, sledge hammer or 
maul, and all such necessary appliances as the rules pertaining to 
road requirements may call for as a complete complement for service. 

Note.—The higher officials of different roads determine the neces¬ 
sary complement of tools and safety devices required to meet con¬ 
ditions obtaining on that system or part of system, and issue rules 
relative to the kind and number of each needed to promote safety 
and facilitate movement of trains. 

Enginemen are responsible for having the proper equipment 
leaving terminals. 

Q. 3.—Should an engine break down while on the road in your 
care, what are your first duties? 

A .—Whistle out the flag, and see that the train is protected at once. 

Q. 4.—What are your next duties? 

A.—Clear the main line as soon as possible and report exact con¬ 
ditions to the proper officials (the master mechanic and superin¬ 
tendent). 

Note.—“Clearing the main line” means ascertaining extent of 
damages and making such temporary repairs as will enable you to 
get on siding out of way of other trains, after which more extensive 



226 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


repairs can be made as the occasion may require to enable you to 
proceed safely to terminal. , 

Q. 5.—Do the gauge cocks indicate the true water level in boiler 
as accurately as the water glass? Why? 

A.—No, the gauge cocks are not as reliable as a perfect working 
water glass, because boiling water will rise the moment the pressure 
is relieved even a little, therefore, when the gauge cock is opened, it 
relieves the pressure on water below it and the globes of steam in 
water begin to burst beneath the surface of water and throw it up to 
opening in gauge cock, many times showing water at a gauge cock 
an inch or two above the true water level, while the water glass, 
having the pressures perfectly equalized in it, the same as they are 
in boiler, the water in glass is at exactly the same level as it is in 
boiler. 

Q. 6.—Is the water glass safe to depend on for water level in 
boiler if water does not move up and down in it when engine is in 
motion? Why? 

A.—No. If the water does not oscillate in glass when engine is 
in motion, one of the stop cocks in mountings is partially closed or 
the opening leading from boiler is stopped up with corrosion or piece 
of gasket so the pressures are not equalized and water in glass does 
not respond to movements of water in the boiler, consequently it 
does not show the true water level and is not reliable. 

Q. 7.—How should all water and steam valves and cocks be 
handled at all times to prevent them becoming defective? 

A.—They should be opened and closed gently, using only the 
pressure of the hand in manipulating them. 

Note.—A wrench or other force used causes serious damage to 
seats and is liable to break the body of fitting off where it enters 
boiler, resulting in personal injury. 

Q. 8.—How do you inspect an engine? 

A.—Thoroughly. Beginning in the cab, inspect all fittings and 
appliances there, examining the fire-box sheets and tubes, then get 
down and inspect connections and parts between engine and tender; 
going ahead, examine all parts of frame, ash pan, wheels, boxes, 
valve gear, spring rigging, bolts, nuts, rods, keys, levers, etc.; passing 
around front end of engine, noting conditions there, work back to 
rear of tender, thoroughly inspecting every part; passing around 
back of tender, finish the inspection at place where you started, 
having noted every defective part. 

Q. 9.—What work on the engine should be done by the engineman? 

A.—Setting up wedges, keying rods, tightening nuts if necessary, 
adjusting oil cup feeds, securing pipe clamps, adjusting brake shoes 
that may have become loose by wearing, tightening valve stem 
packing, and any other necessary work while on the road to insure a 
successful trip and avoid engine failures. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


227 


Q. 10.—What are the duties of the slide or piston valves? 

A.—The main valves (slide or piston) control the admission of 
steam to the cylinders and the exhaust of steam from cylinders to 
atmosphere after the steam has done its work in cylinder. 

Q. 11.—What is steam lap? 

A.—Steam lap is the amount or distance the steam edge of valve 
face overlaps the steam edge of admission port, when the valve is in 
mid-position (or on center of its seat). 

Note.—The edge of valve face or ring by which the steam flows 
on its way to cylinder is termed the steam edge of valve, and the edge 
of admission port over which steam flows as it passes into cylinder 
is called the steam edge of admission port. The edge of valve face 
or ring by which steam flows from cylinder to the exhaust is called 
exhaust edge of valve, and the edge of admission or steam port over 
which steam passes from cylinder is termed the exhaust edge of port. 

Q. 12.—What benefits are derived from the steam lap feature of 
valve? 

A.—Steam lap enables us to get an early cut off of steam entering 
the cylinder and to retain the steam in cylinder, getting work from 
the expansion of the steam. 

Q. 13.—What is meant by lead? 

A.—Lead is the amount the admission port is open for admission 
of steam to cylinder at time piston is ready to begin its stroke. 

Q. 14.—What is the object of lead? 

A.—To admit steam to cylinder just as piston completes its stroke, 
in that manner cushioning piston and bringing it gradually to rest, 
relieving reciprocating parts of excessive strain and wear. It also 
gets the power into cylinder to push piston on return stroke the mo¬ 
ment crank pin passes the dead center. 

Q. 15.—Is lead beneficial on all classes of engines? 

A.—No. 

Q. 16.—On what class of engines is it invaluable? 

A.—On engines running at a high speed. 

Q. 17.—Why is lead not good for engines at slow speeds? 

A.—Because steam is admitted to cylinder before piston completes 
stroke and acts as a resistance to piston’s movement, overcoming its 
equivalent in power exerted on opposite side of piston. 

• Q. 18.—Is the lead the same at all points of cut-off on all engines? 
Explain. 

A.—No. The Stephenson valve motion has the amount of lead 
increased as cut-off is shortened, account of influence of the eccen¬ 
trics. The Walschaert and Baker-Pilliod valve gears give a constant 
lead at all points of cut-off because the lead is controlled by connec¬ 
tion to crosshead, the movements of which do not vary. 

Q. 19.—How much lead is generally given on Stephenson valve 
geared engines, and about what is the amount of its increase at 
shortest cut-off? 




228 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—On most of the modern engines the valves are set line and line 
at full stroke, or if any lead is given it is merely the width of a line 
and the increase from this to the short cut-off is about three-six¬ 
teenths of an inch on the average engine, and it may vary some on 
account of difference in methods of construction and adjustment 
of parts. 

Q. 20.—How much steam lap is generally given in construction 
of valves? 

A.—This depends entirely on the ideas of heads of mechanical 
departments on different roads and varies from five-eighths of an 
inch on some roads to one and one-fourth inches on other roads and 
classes of service. The amount of lap being determined by experi¬ 
ments and calculations to obtain best results. 

Q. 21.—What is exhaust lap? 

» A.—Exhaust lap is the amount the exhaust edge of valve’s face 
overlaps the exhaust edge of admission port when valve is in mid¬ 
position or on center of its seat. 

Q. 22.—On what class of engines is exhaust lap considered a 
benefit? 

A.—On engines in very slow speed service handling heavy trains 
on long grades. 

Q. 23.—What is the effect of exhaust lap and why is it beneficial 
in slow speed service? 

A.—Exhaust lap delays the exhaust getting greater expansion of 
steam and consequently saves water and fuel. It also hastens 
compression and makes the engine loggy. 

Note.—Exhaust lap is only beneficial at a speed where exhaust has 
ample time to escape from cylinder through the restricted port 
opening. 

Q. 24.—What is exhaust clearance? 

A.—It is the amount the admission ports are open to the exhaust 
when valve is in mid-position. 

Another Answer.—It is the distance the exhaust edges of valve 
lack of touching the exhaust edges of the admission ports when valve 
is on center of its seat. 

Note.—“Exhaust clearance” is often called “exhaust lead.” 

Q. 25.—What is the object in giving valve exhaust clearance? 
What does it do? 

A.—To reduce resistance to movement of piston in cylinder on 
high speed engines making them smarter and more speedy. 

Exhaust clearance gets exhaust open earlier and keeps it open 
longer, in that manner reducing the back pressure and delaying 
compression. 

Q. 26.—Is “exhaust clearance” a benefit or detriment from 
economical point of view? Why? 

A.—It is a detriment and sacrifices water and fuel that speed 
may be gained. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


229 


It is an expensive feature from economical standpoint because 
it does not get the expansion of the steam, account of allowing it to 
be exhausted while still at high pressure in cylinder. 

Q- 27.—What is the approximate amount of lead given engines 
equipped with the Walschaert and Baker-Pilliod valve gears? 

A.—It is from about three-sixteenths to seven thirty-seconds of 
an inch on most engines, although many roads are still experimenting 
to determine the proper amount of lead to get best results in different 
classes of service. 

Q. 28.—Name the events (different actions or occurrences taking 
place) during stroke of piston. 

A.—Admission, cut-off, expansion, exhaust or release (during 
which time we have back pressure), and compression. 

Note.—The resistance of exhaust steam called “back pressure” 
obtains during the release and is so considered an “event” of the 
stroke, because it is co-relative with exhaust. 

Q. 29.—What is back pressure? 

A.—“Back pressure” is the resistance of exhaust steam to the 
piston during time the exhaust is open. 

Note.—This resistance is caused by friction of current of exhaust 
steam on walls of channels and restricted openings in nozzle tips 
through which it passes. 

Q. 30.—What is compression? 

A.—“Compression” is the resistance (to the piston) of steam 
confined in the cylinder after the exhaust closes. 

Note.—“Compression” begins at point where “back pressure” 
ends, that is, at time the opening from cylinder to exhaust is closed, 
trapping some steam in cylinder ahead of piston. 

Q. 31.—Name and describe the two general classes of main steam 
valves in use. 

A.—The “outside” admission valve, which may be either a piston 
or slide valve, is one which admits steam to cylinder by its outer 
edges and exhausts steam from cylinder by its inner edges. 

The “inside” admission valve is a piston valve which admits 
steam to the cylinder by its inner edges and exhausts steam from 
the cylinder by the outer ends or edges of the valve. 

Q. 32.—What is a balanced slide valve? 

A.—A balanced slide valve is one which has the pressure kept off 
the greater portion of its upper surface. 

Another Answer.—A balanced slide valve is one so constructed 
that the pressures on top of valve are about equalized with the 
pressures on under side of valve. 

Note.—About 65 per cent of the upper surface of valve is protected 
from the pressure—the pressure allowed on the balance of 35 per 
cent of its upper surface being necessary to overcome the influence 
of the exhaust and steam pressure against face of valve over admis¬ 
sion port at end of where steam is present. 




230 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 33.—How is a slide valve balanced? 

A.—It is balanced by placing strips of metal in suitable grooves 
cut in top of valve near its outer edges. These metal strips are held 
up by elliptical or coil springs (and by steam pressure in chest) 
against the pressure or balance plate (which is attached to or cast 
on the cap of chest), forming a steam-tight joint excluding steam 
from top part of valve enclosed by the balance strips. 

Q. 34.—What is small hole drilled in crown of valve for and what 
is it called? 

A.—This hole is to allow any steam which might get on top of 
valve by defective balance strips, to pass to exhaust and atmos¬ 
phere, in that manner maintaining the balanced feature of valve, 
and it is called the “release port.” 

Q. 35.—Why are valves balanced? 

A.—To reduce friction. 

Q. 36—How does the Allen valve differ from the plain D type 
slide valve? 

A—The Allen valve has a supplementary port extending from 
one face of the valve up and over through crown of valve to the other 
face. 

Q. 37.—What is the object of the supplementary port in the Allen 
valve? 

A.—It is to get a more rapid admission of steam to the cylinder 
at the beginning of stroke of piston and it gets the full port opening 
in about one-half the time the plain D type valve would give it. 

Q. 38.—Describe the piston valve. 

A.—The piston valve is a cylindrical spool-shaped device, with 
metallic packing rings fitted in suitable grooves cut in the outer 
surface of the heads at each end, these packing rings forming a steam- 
tight joint with walls of bushing in valve chamber and determining 
the steam and exhaust edges of valve face. 

Q. 39.—How many ports in steam chest for an outside admission 
valve, and what are the names and duties of these ports, naming 
them as arranged? 

A.—Five ports. The two outer end ports are called supply ports, 
because the supply of steam from boiler to steam chest comes through 
them; the next two ports are called admission ports because steam 
is admitted to the cylinder through them; the central port is called 
the exhaust port because steam is exhausted to atmosphere through 
it after being used in cylinder. 

Q. 40.—How many ports in valve chainber for an inside admission 
valve? Name them in order of arrangement. 

A.—Five. The two outer ports are the exhaust ports, the next 
two are admission ports, the central port is the supply port. 

Q. 41.—Trace the flow of steam from the boiler to the atmosphere 
in a saturated steam locomotive. 

A.—The steam passes from dome, through throttle box, stand¬ 
pipe, dry pipe, tee or nigger head, steam pipes, steam channels or 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


231 


ways in cylinder saddle casting, supply ports, steam chest, and ad¬ 
mission ports to cylinder, after it has done the work in cylinder it 
passes from cylinder through admission port, exhaust cavity in valve, 
exhaust port, exhaust channel in cylinder saddle casting, nozzle 
base, or nozzle box, nozzle tips, petticoat pipe and stack to the 
atmosphere. 

Q. 42.—Trace the flow of steam from boiler to atmosphere in a 
superheated steam locomotive. 

A.—The steam passes from dome through throttle box, standpipe, 
dry pipe, top or saturated steam header, superheater return pipes 
in large tubes or flues, lower or superheater header, thence through 
the supply pipes and supply ports to valve chamber or steam chest, 
then it enters admission ports to cylinder. After performing work 
it passes from cylinder through same admission port it entered 
cylinder through, by end of valve (for inside admission valve) or 
through exhaust cavity of valve (for outside admission), to exhaust 
ports, exhaust channels, exhaust base, exhaust nozzles or tip, petti¬ 
coat and stack to atmosphere. 

Q. 43.—Explain how the power of the steam is transmitted 
from cylinder to driving wheels in a locomotive. 

A.—The movement of valve admits steam to one end of cylinder 
where it exerts its influence or power on the piston head and the power 
is transmitted through the piston head, piston rod, crosshead, wrist 
pin, main rod and main crank pin to main driving wheel, causing it 
to revolve. 

Q. 44.—What is a valve motion? 

A.—Any mechanism that will control the movement of valve, so 
as to admit steam to the cylinder and exhaust steam from the cylin¬ 
der at proper intervals, is a valve motion. 

Q. 45.—What are the parts of valve motion and connections to 
valve for the Stephenson valve motion? 

A.—The eccentric (sometimes called cam or pulley), eccentric 
strap, eccentric blade, link, link saddle, saddle pin (suspension stud), 
link hanger, link block, link block bolt, lower rocker arm, rocker 
shaft, upper rocker arm, rocker box, valve rod bolt, valve rod, valve 
stem, valve yoke, and on some engines a transmission bar is used be¬ 
tween link block and rocker arm. 

Q. 46.—What are the parts of the Walschaert valve motion and 
connection to valve? 

A.—Eccentric crank, eccentric rod, link foot, radial link, trun¬ 
nion pins, trunnion pin brackets, link blocks, link block bolt, radius 
rod (or radius bar), combination lever, union link, crosshead arm, 
valve rod, or valve stem, valve yoke, valve stem crosshead, valve 
stem guides, suspension link. 

Q. 47.—What is a balanced valve? 

A.—A balanced valve is one which has the greater part of the 
pressure kept off the top of the valve. 



232 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Note.—Generally about 65 per cent of the pressure is removed 
from the upper surface of the valve, leaving a pressure sufficient to 
overcome the influence of the exhaust and working pressure in one 
end of the cylinder. 

Q. 48.—How are valves balanced? 

A.—By keeping the pressure off the top surface of the valve; this 
is accomplished by fitting strips of iron (called “balance” strips or 
valve packing strips) in grooves cut in the top of valve near its outer 
edges and supporting these balance strips on coil or elliptic springs, 
which hold them up against the pressure plate attached to the cap 
of steam chest; these balance strips form a steam-tight joint with the 
pressure plate, excluding the steam from the portion of the top of 
the valve which they enclose. 

Q. 49.—Why are valves balanced? 

A.—To reduce friction between valve and its seat. 

Q. 50.—What is the small hole drilled in the top of the valve for, 
and what is it called? 

A.—It is to release any small volume of steam which may get by 
slightly defective balance strips, allowing it to pass out to the ex¬ 
haust, in that manner maintaining the balanced feature of the valve. 
It is called the release port. 

Q. 51.—What is the vacuum valve for, and what is it generally 
called? 

A.—It is to relieve the vacuum formation in the steam chests and 
cylinders when drifting. It is commonly called the relief valve. 

Note.—Many of the most up-to-date railroads are doing away 
with the relief valve, believing that it destroys lubrication qualities 
of the valve oil by admitting the oxygen, and to relieve the vacuum 
formation they either have a drifting valve, which admits a small 
amount of steam to the cylinders while the throttle is closed, or they 
instruct the enginemen to leave the throttle open a slight amount 
for the admission of sufficient steam to prevent the vacuum forma¬ 
tion. 

Q. 52.—What is a transmission bar? 

A.—A transmission bar is a bar of steel or iron used to connect the 
link block to the rocker arm or valve rod connection, on engines 
where the rocker is placed some distance ahead of the link. 

Q. 53.—What are the two different valve motions most common 
on our locomotives today? 

A.—The Stephenson and the Walschaert. 

Q. 54.—In what way do these valve motions differ in construction 
of the parts? 

A.—The Stephenson valve motion has two eccentrics and the re¬ 
versal is accomplished by changing the controlling eccentric, which 
is possible because the eccentrics are attached to the shifting link. 

The Walschaert valve motion has but a single eccentric, which 
has a connection with lower end of radial link, which is suspended at 
its center, and the reversal is accomplished by changing the manner 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


233 


in which the motion is transmitted to the valve, which is possible 
because the link block can be moved to point above or below the 
point at which the link is suspended. 

Q. 55.—How many ways are there of transmitting motion from 
eccentric to the valve? How are these different methods designated? 

A.—There are two ways of conveying motion from the eccentric 
to the valve, and they are called the “Direct” and the “Indirect” 
valve motions. 

Q. 56.—What is a direct valve motion? 

A.—A direct valve motion is one in which the valve moves in the 
same direction as the throw of the eccentric which is controlling it. 

Note.—The connection from eccentric which is in control of valve 
is direct or straight from eccentric to valve. 

Q. 57.—What is an indirect valve motion? 

A.—An indirect valve motion is one in which the valve moves in 
the opposite direction to the throw of the eccentric which is control¬ 
ling it. 

Note.—On engines having the indirect valve motion we have the 
upper and lower rocker arms and rocker shaft (or the equivalent) 
between the eccentric and valve, as a consequence, a reversal of the 
motion given off at the eccentric will obtain at the valve. 

Q. 58.—In the Stephenson valve motion, what is the relative po¬ 
sition of the eccentrics to the main pin for the direct valve motion 
with outside admission valve? 

A.—The throw of the controlling eccentric will lead the main pin 
in the direction in which the wheel will turn, at right angles to the 
main pin plus the angle of advancement from the main pin necessary 
to get the lap of the valve out of the way and give the desired lead. 

Q. 59.—In the Stephenson valve motion, what is the relative po¬ 
sition of the eccentrics to the main pin for the indirect valve motion, 
outside admission valve? 

A.—The throw of the controlling eccentric will follow the main 
pin in the direction in which the wheel will turn, at right angles to 
the main pin minus the- angle of advancement toward the main pin 
necessary to get the lap of the valve out of the way and give the de¬ 
sired amount of lead. 

Q. 60.—What is the relative position of the eccentrics to the main 
pin with the Stephenson valve motion, with the inside admission 
valve and the direct motion gear? 

A.—The throw of the controlling eccentric will follow the main 
pin in the direction in which the wheel will turn, at right angles to 
the main pin, minus the angle of advancement toward the main pin 
necessary to get the lap of the valve out of the way and give the de¬ 
sired amount of lead. 

Q. 61.—With the Stephenson valve motion, what is the relative 
position of the eccentrics to the main pin for the indirect valve mo¬ 
tion, with the inside admission valve? 




234 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—The throw of the controlling eccentric will lead the main pin 
in the direction in which the wheel will turn, at right angles to the 
main pin plus the angle of advancement from the main pin necessary 
to get the lap of the valve out of the way and give the desired amount 
of lead. 

Q. 62.—How is the Stephenson link carried or suspended? 

A.—By the saddle pin (suspension stud) and link hanger to the 
lifting arm of the tumbling shaft. 

Q. 63.—Why is the link saddle pin (suspension stud) placed to 
one side of center of link? 

A.—To overcome the effect of the angularity of the main rod and 
harmonize the travel of the valve with the travel of the piston. 

Note.—The effect of the angularity of the main rod can be over¬ 
come by the manner in which the tumbling shaft is placed, but on 
account of the limited space on the ordinary locomotive this method 
is not possible, although considered the better way to get the proper 
distribution of steam. 

Q. 64.—To what is the link block attached in the Stephenson 
valve gear? 

A.—To the lower rocker arm or to the transmission bar which is 
used to carry the motion ahead to the rocker arm. 

Q. 65.—How.is the Stephenson geared engine reversed? 

A.—The eccentrics have their blades attached to the shifting link, 
the go-ahead blade is connected with the top end of the link, and the 
back-up blade to the lower end of the link; the link may be moved 
up and down on the link block, in that manner accomplishing the 
reverse by changing the controlling eccentric. 

Q. 66.—How is the eccentric placed in relation to the main pin 
on a Walschaert geared engine having outside admission valve and 
direct motion, when going ahead? 

A.—The eccentric will lead the main pin at nearly right angles 
or be a little less than one-fourth of a turn ahead of the pin when 
engine is going ahead. 

Q. 67.—How is the eccentric placed in relation to the main pin on 
a Walschaert geared engine having outside admission valve and in¬ 
direct motion, when going ahead? 

A.—The eccentric will follow the main pin at a little greater angle 
than a right angle or be a little more than one-fourth of a turn back 
of the main pin when the engine is going ahead. 

Q. 68.—How is the eccentric placed in relation to the main pin 
on a Walschaert geared engine, having inside admission valve and 
direct motion, when going ahead? 

A.—The eccentric will follow the main pin at a little more than 
one-fourth of a turn when engine is going ahead. 

Q. 69.—How is the eccentric placed in relation to the main pin 
on a Walschaert geared engine, having inside admission valve and 
indirect motion when going ahead? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


235 


A.—The eccentric will lead the main pin a little less than one- 
fourth of a turn when the engine is going ahead. 

Q. 70.—Is the Walschaert eccentric ever placed at exactly right 
angles to the main pin? If so, when? 

A.—Yes, on engines where the connection between eccentric rod 
and the link foot is made on the dead center line of motion. 

Q. 71.—Why is the eccentric on most Walschaert geared engines 
placed more than a quarter of a turn back of the main pin when 
following the main pin, and less than a quarter of a turn ahead of 
the main pin when leading the main pin? 

A.—To overcome the effect of the angularity of the eccentric rod. 

Note.—On most modern engines the link is suspended so high 
that it is necessary to make the connection between the eccentric 
rod and link foot above the center line of motion. As a consequence 
of this condition in the construction of the engine the distance be¬ 
tween the eccentric crank and point of connection with link foot 
when link was standing perpendicular (as it should be when main 
pins are on the dead centers) would be greater when eccentric was 
below the center line of motion than when the eccentric was above 
the center line of motion if the eccentric was placed at exactly right 
angle to the main pin. This is on account of the angularity of the 
eccentric rod, and would cause a distortion in the movement of the 
valve and an unequal distribution of the steam. To overcome this 
effect the eccentric is so placed that with main pins on either dead 
center, the distance between link foot connection, to eccentric rod, 
and eccentric will be equal, when link stands perpendicular and the 
eccentric is either above or below the center line of motion. 

Q. 72.—How is the effect of the angularity of the main rod over¬ 
come with the Walschaert valve motion? 

A.—The combination lever establishes a connection between the 
piston and valve which will harmonize the travel of the valve with 
the travel of the piston, in this manner eliminating the effect of the 
angularity of the main rod. 

Q. 73.—How is the link of the Walschaert valve gear carried or 
suspended? 

A.—It is hung on trunnion pins at its exact center as regards width 
and length, and the trunnion pins rest in boxes formed in the trun¬ 
nion pin brackets so the link may rotate about the centers of the 
trunnion pins. 

Q. 74.—How is the eccentric connected to the link on the Wal¬ 
schaert valve gear? 

A.—By the eccentric rod which connects the eccentric to an arm 
which extends down from the lower end of the link (called ‘ ‘the link 
foot”), and as the eccentric rotates it gives the link the action of 
the upper and lower rocker arms in the Stephenson gear. 

Q. 75.—What is the object of the “link foot” in the Walschaert 
gear? 



236 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—To extend the lower end of the link down as near as possible 
of the center line of motion for connection with the eccentric rod. 

Note.—The link foot is merely a convenience to perfect the point 
to connection with the eccentric rod and reduce the angularity of 
the eccentric rod as much as it is practicable. 

Q. 76.—To what is the link block in the Walschaert gear con¬ 
nected? 

A.—To the radius rod which establishes a connection with the 
valve through the combination lever and valve stem. 

Q. 77.—Why is the “radius rod” so-called? 

A.—Because the length of the radius rod, from center of point of 
connection with link block to center of point of connection with 
combination lever, is the exact length of the line used to describe 
the circle of which the link is an arc. 

Q. 78.—What duties are performed by the combination lever? 

A.—The combination lever gets the lap of the valve out of the 
way for admission of steam, gets the port open the desired amount 
of lead at the beginning of stroke of piston, and eliminates the effect 
of the angularity of the main rod by harmonizing the travel of the 
valve with the travel of the piston. 

Q. 79.—How is the Walschaert geared engine reversed? 

A.—By changing the manner of transmitting the motion from 
eccentric to the valve—changing it from direct motion to indirect 
motion or vice versa. 

Note.—The manner of changing manner of transmitting -motion 
is made possible through having the’ link suspended at its center 
and the link block moved above or below the point of suspension. 

Q. 80.—Why is there a difference in manner of placing eccentric 
in relation to the main pin on different engines? 

A.—Because there is a difference in the construction of the valve 
or on account of a difference in manner of transmitting the motion 
from the eccentric to the valve. 

Q. 81.—What is the difference in manner of placing the eccentric 
where the valves are the same but the manner of transmitting motion 
is different, or where the valves are different and manner of trans¬ 
mitting motion is the same? 

A.—Just one-half of a turn difference, or 180 degrees. 

Q. 82.—How far will the Walschaert eccentric move the valve 
without any other influence brought to bear on movement of valve? 

A.—When in full control it will move the valve built line and line 
(that would be a valve without any lap) just far enough to give the 
full port opening each way and no more, or we might say that it 
will move the valve just the width of the port each way from the 
center of its seat. 

Q. 83.—How far will the combination lever move the valve? 

A.—Just twice the lap plus twice the lead of the valve during 
one complete stroke of the piston. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


237 


Note.—Without any eccentric connection, and with the link 
block placed in the center of the link so as to give a positive fulcrum 
for the combination lever on forward end of radius rod, the combi¬ 
nation lever will move the valve far enough to have the port open 
the amount of lead when piston is at end of stroke. 

Q- 84.—How is the proper location of the Walschaert eccentric 
found? 

A.—When the connection between eccentric rod and link foot 
is made above or below the center line of motion (at which time the 
angularity of the eccentric rod would affect the distribution of 
steam), the engine is placed with main pin on forward dead center 
so that center line of motion will cut the center of main pin and center 
of main axle, the link is placed exactly perpendicular and the eccen¬ 
tric is set at right angles to a line drawn from the center of the point 
of connection with link foot to the center of main axle. 

Q. 85.—How much clearance is given the piston at each end of 
the cylinder and why is it necessary? 

A.—The piston is given from one-fourth to one-half of an inch 
clearance, generally about three-eighths of an inch at each end of 
the cylinder to allow for the wear of the connections of the recipro¬ 
cating parts and wear on shoes and wedges, to prevent knocking 
out cylinder heads. 

Q. 86.—What results obtain when the combination lever on a 
Walschaert gear is broken and the radius rod is connected to the 
valve stem as is possible on some classes of engines? 

A.—The valve is moved far enough each way (with reverse lever 
in the extreme end of quadrant) to open the port the width of port 
less the lap of the valve, and this opening will occur when the crank 
pins are passing the top and bottom quarters. 

Q. 87.—What causes the cylinder to be ruptured or burst on engine 
equipped with Walschaert’s valve gear and having piston valves? 

A.—When the union link breaks it will allow the valve to move to 
the center of its seat and confine pressure in the cylinder which will 
be compressed by the piston until the walls of cylinder or the cylinder 
head gives out under the great pressure. 

Q. 88.—What generally causes steam chests to burst? 

A.—Compressed air, account of reversing the engine with cylinder 
cocks and throttle closed. 

Note.—By reversing the engine you immediately change the 
engine’s cylinders into air compressors, and with the throttle closed 
this compressed air is confined in the steam chests and steam pipes 
until they burst. By opening the throttle the compressed air would 
pass into the boiler and the safety valves would relieve the excessive 
pressure. 

Q. 89.—Where does this air get into the cylinders and steam 
chests? 

A.—It comes down through the stack, nozzles and exhaust 
channels. 



238 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 90.—If the exhaust gets out of square on the road, what does 
it indicate? 

A.—It indicates an improper distribution of steam, caused by 
some defect in valve motion or lack of lubrication .causing friction 
to take up all the slack in worn parts of valve motion. Where the 
double exhaust tip is used, a bushing lost out of one tip will cause 
the exhaust to be out of square. 

Q. 91.—How would you block a crosshead? 

A.—Securely, blocking it at the back end of the guides where the 
construction of the engine will permit, or at the front end when 
necessary. 

Note.—We block at the rear end when possible so that if the block¬ 
ing should accidently give way and the crosshead move, the front 
cylinder head will be damaged in preference to the back head, as 
the cost of replacing it is far less. 

Note.—Block the crosshead at the travel mark at the rear end 
of the guide bars, in that manner preventing the cylinder packing 
ring from getting down into the counterbore and causing delay in 
making repairs at the terminal; secure the crosshead by placing a 
block of wood between crosshead and guide block to hold it at the 
travel mark, then lash block to lower guide bar between crosshead 
and front guide block or the back cylinder head; this applies to the 
“Locomotive” type crosshead and the “Underhung” type of cross¬ 
head; but where you have the ‘ ‘Alligator” type crosshead, and desire 
to block the crosshead ahead, loosen one of the guide bolts with the 
‘ ‘plow bolt” head, which holds the lower guide bar to yoke; drive the 
bolt up so head will be about three-fourths of an inch above the bar; 
cut the block about one-half inch longer than the distance from 
bolt head to crosshead; sink bolt head into end of blocking and lash 
the blocking down on guide bar; this will prevent the bolt from work¬ 
ing out and hold the crosshead secure. 

Note.—Whenever crosshead is blocked remove both cylinder 
cocks or fasten them open, except when the steam edge of valve seat 
is broken so that steam will be present in cylinder, which case you 
will remove the cylinder cock at end where piston head rests and 
block the cylinder cock open at end of cylinder, where steam is pres¬ 
ent, to allow condensation to pass out of cylinder—this is to protect 
cylinder, especially in freezing weather. 

Q. 92.—What kind of a blow is a valve blow? 

A.—A steady, constant blow at the exhaust during time the throt¬ 
tle is open. 

Q. 93.—Is there more than one defect that will cause a valve blow? 

A.—Yes, two different defects cause a valve blow. 

Q. 94.—What are these defects? 

A.—Broken valve packing strips or springs, and the face of the 
valve or its seat cut or worn hollowing, and in the piston valve the 
packing rings broken give the same result. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


239 


Q. 95.—Is there another defect which will cause the steady blow 
at the exhaust when the throttle is open? And what is this defect? 

A.—Yes, a sand hole or crack in the cylinder saddle casting be¬ 
tween the live steam channel and one of the exhaust channels will 
cause the steady blow at the exhaust while the throttle is open, but 
this blow is generally much more pronounced than the valve blow. 

Q. 96.—How can you tell the difference between the valve face 
blow and the defective valve packing strip, so that you will make 
the proper test? 

A.—The defective valve packing strip, or as it is called, the bal¬ 
ance strip, in addition to the constant blow while throttle is open, 
will have the reverse lever jerking severely in the rack while the en¬ 
gine is in motion, because the balanced effect is lost for that valve 
and the friction on its seat is excessive. 

The cut valve, or one of the piston type, having broken rings, will 
have the blow, but does not handle hard nor does the reverse lever 
jerk in the rack, because it still has the balanced effect. 

Q. 97.—How do you test for valve packing strip blow? 

A.—Place the engine on the quarter on side to be tested, set the 
brake, open throttle a little and handle reverse lever, moving it from 
one corner to the other, noting manner in which the reverse lever 
handles, whether hard or easily, test the other side in same manner 
and on the side where the lever handles the harder you will find the 
defective valve packing strips. 

Q. 98.—Why do you place the engine on the quarter on side to be 
tested? 

A.—So as to move but the one valve which is to be tested. 

Note.—If both valves were moved, you could not tell which valve 
moved hard, so it is necessary to place the engine on quarter on side 
to be tested so that the other side will be on the dead center, in which 
position the valve will not move any with the Walschaert gear, and 
with the Stephenson gear it moves very little. 

Q. 99.—How do you test for a valve face or seat blow? 

A.—Place the valve on the center of its seat, on side to be tested, 
open cylinder cocks, set brake and open throttle; if steam shows up 
at one or both cylinder cocks it indicates a defect in face of valve 
or its seat. 

Note.—If the defect does not show with valve on center of its 
seat, it is advisable to move the reverse lever a little, in that manner 
moving the valve a little on its seat so that if the cause of blow is 
seat worn hollowing, the valve will be raised as it comes out of the 
hollowed place and show the defect. 

Note.—Valve may be gotten on center of its seat by placing the 
engine on the quarter and reverse lever in the center of the rack, or 
you can get the valve located centrally by getting the rocker arm at 
right angles to the valve rod. 

Note.—With the Walschaert gear the valve is central on its seat 
when the link block is placed in center of link and the combination 
lever is at right angles to the valve rod. 



240 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 100.—What would be the first thing you would do if the ex¬ 
haust got out of square on the road? 

A.—Ease off on the throttle a little, and see that the lubricator 
was working all right and feeding properly. 

Q. 101.—Why is it necessary to ease off on the throttle to get the 
proper lubrication to valves and cylinder sometimes while on the 
road? 

A.—Because the steam pressure in chest becomes greater than 
the pressure in the feed arms, and the current of steam flowing up 
through the oil pipes holds the oil back from entering the steam 
chest; easing off on the throttle reduces the chest pressure below 
that in the feed arms, and allows the oil to flow into the chest. 

Note.—This trouble may be caused by the main steam valve to 
lubricator being only partly open, by the equalizing tubes being 
partially closed by corrosion or lime deposit, or it may be caused by 
the main steam pipe to lubricator being too small, and not main¬ 
taining the high pressure necessary in the feed arms to equalize with 
the chest pressure. 

Q. 102.—What are the different causes of improper distribution 
of steam, or of an engine going lame on the road? 

A.—Lost motion in valve gear and insufficient lubrication, sprung 
valve yoke, cracked valve yoke, sprung vale rod, sprung rocker arm, 
loose rocker box, badly worn rocker shaft or rocker box, worn link 
block, link sprung or cracked, sprung tumbling shaft, link lifting arm 
bent, link hanger too long or too short, blade bolts badly worn, 
sprung eccentric blade, slipped blade, badly worn straps or cam, 
strap bolts loose, cylinder saddles loose and working in frame, and 
engine frame broken between main driving box and cylinder saddles. 

Q. 103.—What would you do if valve yoke was cracked? 

A.—Work the engine full stroke with light throttle, handling full 
train. 

Note.—By having the steam follow the piston the entire length 
of stroke you get the power to handle the train, and by using the 
light throttle you reduce the steam pressure on top of valve, and, 
consequently, the friction on seat and face of valve, therefore the 
liability of breaking the yoke entirely off is less. 

Q. 104.—How do you tell when a valve yoke is cracked? 

A.—The exhaust will be normal when the main pin is passing the 
front center, and it will be light when passing the back center. 

Standing test.—Place the engine on the top quarter on side to be 
tested, with the reverse lever in front corner or quadrant, set the 
brake, open cylinder cocks, open throttle wide and pull reverse lever 
back, noting position of reverse in relation to center of quadrant 
when steam ceases to flow from the back cylinder cock; if the lever 
is back of center of rack when steam ceases to flow from back cylinder 
cock it indicates that the yoke is cracked or defective. 

Note.—The friction between valve and seat causes the crack in 
yoke to open, and the valve is pulled back diagonally on its seat; 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


241 


therefore, the back port will not be closed at the proper time, and 
many times the front port will be opened and steam be showing at 
front cylinder cock before the back port is closed. 

Q. 105.—What would you do if the valve yoke was broken entirely 
off, or the valve stem was broken off the yoke? 

A.—Disconnect the valve rod and remove the vacuum valve, then 
with a stick or bar push the valve as far back in the chest as possible, 
replace vacuum valve, open cylinder cocks, admit a little steam to 
chest, and with the valve rod push the valve back slowly until a little 
steam shows at the back cylinder cock, clamp the valve stem in that 
position, remove the vacuum valve and fit stick of wood in it that 
will reach the valve when the vacuum valve is screwed back in place; 
in that manner you will hold valve in position with back port open 
a little; remove the cylinder cocks, and you are ready to proceed. 
Do not take down the main rod, you will lubricate the cylinder and 
piston rod by having the little current of steam flowing down through 
the cylinder and out of the back cylinder cock opening; use the lu¬ 
bricator as when the engine is all right. 

Note.—There is no need of disconnecting a main rod, the main 
rod or its connections are not damaged, and no large volume of steam 
is entering cylinder, and proper lubrication can be provided. 

Note.—Where the cylinders are provided with indicator plugs, 
they may be removed to establish free circulation of air in cylinders 
instead of removing the cylinder cocks. 

Note.—Some heads of mechanical departments desire the valve 
blocked in central position at all times when it is blocked at all; in 
that case lubrication may be provided by pouring oil into the indi¬ 
cator plug openings, or by slacking off the front cylinder head and 
putting a small piece of wood in at the top, then tightening up on the 
studs, pour oil in at the opening thus provided. 

Note.—Whenever valve is blocked for any cause, except for the 
broken outer or steam bridge of seat, or the piston is gone entirely 
from the cylinder, remove both cylinder cocks or both indicator 
plugs, to avoid the vacuum formation and compression in cylinder, 
which would be caused by the movement of piston to and fro in the 
cylinder, and the vacuum and compression, if allowed to form, would 
cause serious resistance to the movement of piston in cylinder, 
causing the cylinder to heat and cut. 

The old method of disconnecting for broken valve yoke or stem: 
Get the rocker arm at right angles to the valve rod, clamp the valve 
stem in that position, remove the valve rod or secure it to clear rocker 
arm, remove the vacuum valve, and with rod or stick push the valve 
back against end of valve stem, fit block into vacuum valve that will 
reach the valve when vacuum valve is in place, securing valve in 
mid-position in this way; then disconnect main rod, block crosshead 
securely in guides, remove the cylinder cocks, and put collar on main 
pin. 



242 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 106.—What would you do if valve to the exhaust cavity were 
broken? 

A.—Remove cap of chest, disconnect valve rod, and remove the 
valve from chest, then fit pieces of wood into the admission port 
where face of the valve was broken, fit blocking into the exhaust port, 
place valve back on center of seat, using the good part of face to 
cover its admission port, put cap back on chest, and clamp valve 
stem to hold valve central, provide for free circulation and lubrica¬ 
tion, and proceed. 

Another way.—Remove cap of chest, disconnect valve rod, take 
out valve, put block of hard wood over seat to cover all ports, having 
it reach from one side of chest to the other; nail another piece of 
blocking crossways on the seat block, which will reach from the for¬ 
ward end of chest to the back end of chest so that it will hold the 
block over the ports; drive nail hole or bore small hole through seat 
block into back port, for the steam to carry lubrication into cylinder 
through; leave valve stem in chest and put cap back on; remove the 
indicator plugs, and you are ready to go. The steam pressure will 
hold blocking on the seat. 

Q. 107.—Can you tell whether valve yoke is cracked or eccentric 
strap bolts are loose? How? 

A.—Yes, with the valve yoke cracked you will have the normal 
exhaust as the main pin passes the forward center and the light ex¬ 
haust as the main pin passes the back center, and with the loose strap 
bolts the normal exhaust will be as the main pin passes the back 
center and the light exhaust as the main pin passes the forward cen¬ 
ter, if the valve motion is indirect, but with the direct valve motion 
the effect of loose strap bolts is about the same as the cracked valve 
yoke. 

Q. 108.—What would you do if body of piston valve or its heads 
were broken? 

A.—Put blind gasket in joint of live steam pipe. 

Another way.—Cut large, round stick of wood, that would fill valve 
chamber, put piece of sheet iron around it to keep steam from cutting 
it away, and put it in valve chamber in place of valve, then in either 
case it would be necessary to disconnect valve rod and provide for 
free circulation of air in cylinder and for lubrication. 

Q. 109.—How would you test for broken packing rings in an in¬ 
side admission piston valve? 

A.—In practically the same way as with a slide valve, but as the 
rings determine the steam and exhaust edges of the valve, you may 
be able to tell which ring is defective by placing the engine on the 
quarter on side to be tested, and the reverse lever in center of rack- 
open the cylinder cocks, admit steam; if you get a blow through to 
the exhaust at end where steam will show at cylinder cock, both 
rings are defective; if you get no blow with valve on center of seat, 
move the lever so that steam ring will open admission port a little, 
and if you get a blow through to the exhaust it will indicate that the 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


243 


exhaust ring is defective at end of valve where steam port is opened, 
and steam is showing at the cylinder cock; if you get no blow, move 
the lever so that the valve will be moved to position where exhaust 
ring will uncover exhaust edge of admission port; if you get a blow 
through to the exhaust in that position it indicates that the steam 
ring at that end of valve is defective; testing both ends of valve in 
this way, you can locate the rings which are defective. 

Note.—The broken steam rings are generally located when valve 
is placed on the center of seat, and steam is admitted to chest, be¬ 
cause, with cylinder cocks open, the steam will show at end of cylin¬ 
der where steam ring is defective. The test merely proves it to you. 

Q. 110.—How can you locate a slipped eccentric-or blade quickly, 
and know whether it is the back-up motion eccentric or the forward 
motion which is gone wrong? 

A.—By knowing that, with the reverse lever placed in either 
corner of the rack, one eccentric practically controls the valve move¬ 
ments, but between the corners both eccentrics have an influence 
on the valve, and that the exhausts occur when crank pins are cross¬ 
ing the centers; if engine goes lame while running along, on account 
of slipped eccentric or rod, you may move the lever towards the cor¬ 
ner, and if valve motion squares up as the go-ahead eccentric is 
placed more in control of the valve, it indicates that the go-ahead 
eccentric is all right, and by pulling the lever up toward the center 
you will place the back-up eccentric more in control, and the engine 
will get lamer the nearer the center you get, the lever indicating that 
the back-up eccentric is wrong, but if she gets lamer as you drop the 
lever down, placing the go-ahead in control, it shows that the go- 
ahead is wrong, and as you hook her up toward center she will square 
up; watching the crank you can locate which side has the uneven 
exhaust. 

Note.—By placing the engine on the dead center on the defective 
side, and having the reverse lever in center of rack, you can tell 
whether the blade has slipped too long or too short, because with the 
engine in this position, when eccentrics are right, the link will stand 
straight up, or perpendicular; so, by noting which way the defective 
blade causes the link to incline from the perpendicular position, you 
will know whether to shorten or lengthen the blade. 

Q. 111.—How would you set a slipped eccentric? 

A—Place the engine on the dead center on disabled side, place 
the reverse lever in the extreme corner of quadrant which will place 
the good eccentric in control of the valve, mark the valve stem 
flush with the face of the gland, place the reverse lever in the oppo¬ 
site extreme corner of quadrant, go under the engine and turn slipped 
eccentric on axle until the mark on valve stem comes back flush 
with the gland, being sure to have the throw (web) of eccentric on 
the opposite side of the main pin from the one that is solid on the 
axle. 



244 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Another way.—Knowing that the left main pin is one-fourth of a 
turn back of the right main pin (if a right lead engine) and on the left 
lead engine the left main pin is one-fourth of a turn ahead of the 
right main pin, and that the eccentrics bear the same relative posi¬ 
tion to their respective main pins; no matter what position the en¬ 
gine is standing in, you may go under the engine and turn the slipped 
eccentric on the axle until tne throw (web) is one-fourth of a turn 
ahead or back of the corresponding eccentric on the opposite side of 
engine, as the construction of the engine may require, and the ec¬ 
centric will be approximately right. This is called the quartering 
the axle method. 

Another way.—Knowing that, with the engine standing on the 
dead center and reverse lever in either extreme corner of the rack, 
the admission port at end of cylinder where piston rests will be open 
the amount of the lead, and that, with indirect motion and the out¬ 
side admission valve, or the direct motion and the inside admission 
valve, the throw or web of the go-ahead eccentric follows the main 
pin at right angles less the lap and lead angle of advance toward the 
pin, and the back-up eccentric is ahead of the pin at the same angle. 
Know also that the direct motion for outside admission valve and 
the indirect motion for the inside admission valve, have the go-ahead 
eccentric leading the main pin at right angles plus the lap and lead 
angle of advance from the pin, and the back-up eccentric is following 
the pin' at a corresponding angle. With this knowledge, you will 
place the engine on the dead center on disabled side, with reverse 
lever in corner of rack which will place the slipped eccentric in con¬ 
trol of the valve, go under the engine and turn the disabled eccentric 
until the throw (web) is at right angles to main pin, being sure to 
have it on opposite side of main pin f^rom web of one that is solid on 
the axle, then, with the cylinder cocks open and a little steam ad¬ 
mitted to chest, incline the eccentric towards or from the main pin, 
as the construction of the valve movement requires, until a little 
steam shows at the cylinder cock at end of cylinder where the piston 
rests; secure it there, and proceed. 

Q. 112.—What is a right lead engine? 

A.—A right lead engine is one having the right main pin one- 
fourth of a turn ahead of the left main pin. 

Q. 113.—What is a left lead engine? 

A.—A left lead engine is one on which the left main pin leads the 
right main pin one-fourth of a turn. 

Q. 114.—Are most engines right or left lead? 

A.—Most engines are right lead, but the Pennsylvania R. R. has 
the left lead engine as a standard. 

Q. 115.—How are the eccentrics kept in place on the axle? 

A.—They are secured by keys and set screws, and some roads have 
the eccentrics fastened to each other by bolting them together. 

Q. 116.—What would you do if steam chest were cracked? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


245 


A.—Disconnect oil pipe, remove the casing, slack off on all cap 
studs and wedge between wall of chest and studs to force the cracked 
sides together, tighten down on cap studs, connect up oil pipe, and 
proceed. 

Note.—Where the studs are put through the walls of chest, it will 
be necessary to sling a chain around the chest and wedge between the 
chain and walls of chest to make it tight. 

Q. 117.—What would you do if steam chest were so badly broken 
that it could not be repaired? 

A.—Remove the broken parts, disconnect the valve rod, and take 
valve and valve yoke and rod out of the way, then drive pieces of 
wood into the supply ports and fit piece into top of supply ports, 
then build up on top of supply ports with blocking, place cap of chest 
on blocking and tighten down on studs to hold blocking in place on 
face of supply ports. 

If the cap of chest is broken so it cannot be used, take a brake 
lever from a box car and put it from one stud to another across top 
of blocking on supply ports, and tighten down on blocking. 

If the studs are gone or useless, sling a large chain around the 
cylinder and chest, passing it outside the guide bars at back end of 
cylinder and in next the frame of engine at front end of cylinder, 
place a heavy block on blocking to ports and use jack under chain to 
make the blocking solid on ports. 

Q. 118.—What would you do when top rocker arm breaks? 

A.—Disconnect valve rod from broken part, clamp valve with 
backport slightly open, remove cylinder cocks or indicator plugs, 
and proceed. 

Another way.—Disconnect broken part, clamp valve centrally 
on the seat, provide for lubrication and free circulation of air in 
cylinder, and proceed. 

Note.—Some people desire to have the main rod disconnected 
for an accident of this kind; in that case disconnect the valve rod, 
clamp the valve central on its seat, remove cylinder cocks, discon¬ 
nect the main rod, clamp the crosshead securely at the back end of 
the guides when it is possible, but if the construction of the engine 
requires it you may have to secure the crosshead at forward end of 
guides, put collar on the main pin, and proceed. 

Note.—It is not necessary to take down the main rod, so long as 
you provide for proper lubrication in the cylinder, and for free cir¬ 
culation of air in cylinder so that the cylinder will not heat and cut. 

Note.—There are several good ways of providing for lubrication 
in the cylinder when the piston is left connected up to the main rod; 
one way is to leave the back admission port open slightly, then, with 
the cylinder cock removed, the steam will pass through port and out 
of cylinder cock, taking the oil, which the lubricator feeds, along 
with it and distributing it on the piston rod and walls of the cylinder; 
the steam in itself is a lubricant and, when saturated with oil, pro¬ 
tects the cylinder for the engine to run any distance. 



246 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Another way is to pour the oil into the indicator plug openings 
when the valve is blocked centrally, or you may slack off on the 
studs to the front cylinder head and place a small wedge of wood 
in between head and end of cylinder, then tighten up on the studs 
so the head will not loosen off, and pour oil in at the opening thus af¬ 
forded. 

Q. 119.—What would you do if the bottom rocker arm became 
broken? 

A.—Follow either of the above methods, being sure to make the 
link on the disabled side clear low T er end of broken rocker arm. This 
may be done by lashing the rocker arm parallel with the frame of the 
engine, or by lashing the link hanger on the disabled side to the one 
on the good side of the engine, making the good link hold the dis¬ 
abled link away from the rocker arm, and when the link hangers are 
lashed together it will not be necessary to disconnect the valve rod 
from top rocker arm. 

Another way which is absolutely safe is to take down both ec¬ 
centrics and lash the disabled link to link hanger, but this takes 
time, and is not necessary, unless required by those in authority. 

Q. 120.—What would you do if link block bolt (pin) were broken? 

A.—Substitute another bolt if possible; if you have no suitable bolt, 
disconnect valve rod from top rocker arm, lash rocker arms parallel 
with the frame rail of engine, block valve with back port slightly 
open, remove the cylinder cocks or indicator plugs and proceed. 

If it is not possible to lash the rocker arms parallel with frame 
and have them clear rods, either lash the link hanger on disabled 
side to the one on the opposite side to hold link clear of lower end of 
rocker arm, or take down the eccentrics and lash link to the hanger. 

Q. 121.—What would you do if the bolt that attaches the valve 
rod to top rocker arm lost out or became broken? 

A.—Substitute another bolt, or use the knuckle pin out of front 
draw bar and secure it in place. Do not disconnect anything. 

Q. 122.—What would you do if link saddle pin (suspension stud) 
broke? 

A.—Raise the link to the height where it will give you the desired 
cut-off to handle train, block between link block and top of link, re¬ 
move the broken parts and proceed, keeping the disabled link well 
oiled. Do not reverse the engine. 

Note.—It is permissible and practical to place block in lower end 
of link, but it must be cut about one inch shorter than distance from 
link block to end of link to allow for the slip of the link. 

Note.—When you desire to back up, the longer block must be 
placed in top end of link to raise link high enough to place the back-up 
eccentric in control of the valve, and get the proper distribution of 
steam. 

Q. 123.—What would you do if the link hanger was broken? 

A.—Block the link at the desired point of cut-off to handle the 
train, remove the broken parts necessary, and proceed. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


247 


Q. 124.—What jvould you do if the lifting arm was broken? 

A.—Block the link at the desired point of cut-off to lift and handle 
the train, remove the broken parts necessary, and proceed. 

Q. 125.—What precaution must be taken when you have one link 
blocked up for broken saddle pin or link hanger? 

A.—You must guard against reversing the engine without first 
changing the blocking, because if engine were reversed without 
placing the link to the same position the good side would be after 
reversal, you would have one side working against the other, and if 
reversed while in motion might cause wheels to lock and slide. You 
must also guard against dropping the good side any lower than you 
have the disabled side blocked at, unless you know that the lifting 
arm will clear the head of link on disabled side. 

Note.—To get the proper length of block to place on link block 
to hold link up to the desired point of cut-off on the disabled side, 
place the reverse lever at point in rack where you will want to work 
engine the hardest to handle train, cut the block to fit on top of link 
block in good side and place it in link on disabled side. 

Note.—To guard against dropping the lever below point at which 
you have disabled side blocked, put block in quadrant. 

Q. 126.—What would you do if the tumbling shaft breaks? 

A.—Where the construction of engine will permit, place bar across 
top of frame under the lifting arms and lash it there, also lash the 
lifting arms to the bar: where this is impossible it will be necessary 
to block both links at the desired point of cut-off by placing block 
on top of link blocks under the head of links. 

Note.—When both links are connected to the same part of shaft, 
block in one link only, because when one link is slipping up the other 
one is moving down on its link block at each vibration of the links, 
consequently blocking in both links would be liable to cause further 
damage. 

Q. 127.—What would you do if the reverse lever or reach rod 
breaks? 

A.—If vertical arm to tumbling shaft extends up through the 
running board, you can raise the links up to the desired point of cut¬ 
off and block the vertical arm in that position in slot in running 
board, otherwise you can support the links (where construction of 
engine will permit) by placing a bar across top of frame under lifting 
arms, or by placing block in top of one link only, making it carry 
both links at the desired height. 

Q. 128.—What would you do if the vertical arm to tumbling shaft 
broke? 

A.—Place bar across top of frame under lifting arms, or block in 
top of one link only, to hold links at desired point of cut-off. 

Q. 129.—What is a quick way to get valve central on seat when 
engine stops on dead center, and it is necessary to block valve to 
cover ports? 



248 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Knowing that the port at end of cylinder where piston rests 
is open the amount of lead, and that the valve has about seven- 
eighths of an inch steam lap with outside admission valve engine 
standing on forward center, mark valve stem about one inch from 
valve stem packing case and disconnect valve rod, move it ahead 
until mark is flush with face of packing case. With inside admission 
valve, engine on forward center, mark valve stem flush with face 
of packing case, disconnect valve rod and pull it back until mark is 
about one inch away from face of packing case. 

With outside admission engine standing on back center, mark 
valve stem at face of packing case, disconnect valve rod and pull 
back until mark is about one inch away from face of packing case. 
With inside admission valve, engine on back center, mark valve stem 
about one inch from face of packing case, and disconnect valve rod 
and move it ahead until mark on valve stem is flush with face of 
packing case. 

Note.—This method will not get the valve exactly in center of 
its seat, but will place it near enough to center to cover the ports, 
and if you know the exact amount of lap and lead, by moving valve 
in this manner the amount of lap plus the lead, you will get valve 
on exact center of seat. 

Note.—Another method of placing the valve in center of seat 
when engine is standing on dead center, if a Stephenson gear: place 
reverse lever in center of rack, disconnect one eccentric blade from 
link and move the link until the rocker arm is at right angles to the 
valve stem, clamp valve there, disconnect valve rod and connect up 
eccentric rod again.—If a Walschaert valve gear, place reverse lever 
in center of rack, disconnect lower end of combination lever and 
move it until valve rod forms a right angle with its upper end, clamp 
valve there and disconnect radius bar from combination lever, sus¬ 
pend it up and connect up the lower end of combination lever to 
union link. 

Q. 130.—How would you locate side on which valve yoke or valve 
stem was broken off inside of steam chest? 

A.—Open the cylinder cocks while engine was in motion and throt¬ 
tle open, and would get a steady blow from the back cylinder cock 
on the disabled side if an outside admission valve, or from the front 
cylinder cock if an inside admission valve. 

Note.—When valve yoke breaks or valve stem breaks it will leave 
the valve at the forward end of steam chest, and with the outside 
admission valve the back admission port would be wide open, and 
the inside admission valve would have the front admission port wide 
open. 

Note.—On an engine having an outside admission valve, if work¬ 
ing steam when engine stops, or attempting to spot engine after 
breaking valve yoke or stem, the engine will stop on the forward 
dead center, because the steam in back end of cylinder would move 
the piston to forward end of cylinder and hold it there. An inside 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


249 


admission valve will sometimes move to center of seat on account 
of perfect balance and close port so engine might be moved, but 
generally it would stop on the back dead center on the disabled side. 

Note.—In either case after engine had stopped on dead center, 
you can test for disabled side by opening cylinder cocks, admitting 
steam and moving reverse lever from one corner to the other; if you 
are able to shift steam from one cylinder cock to the other it shows 
that you have control of valve on side where engine is on the quarter 
and the other valve must be the one that is disabled. 

Q. 131.—What would cause you to think valve yoke or stem was 
broken? 

A.—The loss of two exhausts and peculiar rocking motion of 
engine, caused by one side working against the other side during 
half the revolution. 

Q. 132.—What would you do if valve yoke were cracked or sprung? 

A.—Work reverse lever down at long cut-off, and light throttle, 
handling full train. 

Note.—By working light throttle you reduce the pressure on 
valve and the friction being less the yoke will hold to complete trip. 
By allowing the steam to follow piston nearly entire length of cylin¬ 
der, you will have power to handle train to terminal. 

Q. 133.—How would you locate the cracked or sprung valve yoke? 

A.—By engine going suddenly very lame and having a heavy 
exhaust when the crank was passing the front center and a light 
exhaust when pin was crossing back center, account of valve not 
giving much port opening at front end of the cylinder. 

Standing test.—Place engine on top quarter on side you desire 
to test, have reverse lever in forward corner, open cylinder cocks, 
set the brakes, open the throttle so as to admit heavy steam pressure 
to steam chest, pull reverse lever back and note where lever is in 
relation to center of rack when steam ceases to flow from back 
cylinder cock. If lever is back of center of rack before valve closes 
the back admission port it indicates a defective valve yoke. 

Note.—When the valve is being moved ahead the stem and back 
of the yoke will move it squarely on its seat and give the back port 
full opening, but as valve is being pulled back, the friction will cause 
crack to open up and valve will move back diagonally on seat and 
open the forward port but a little, and will not close the back port 
as soon as it should. 

Q. 134.—What would you do if relief (vacuum) valve in steam 
chest broke? 

A.—Would remove cap and clamp it on seat with block of wood 
or iron placed on valve and cap screwed down on it. 

Note.—Many grease plugs will fit opening* in steam chest where 
the vacuum valve screws into chest. 

Q. 135.—What would you do if cap to vacuum valve blew out and 
was lost? 

A.—Would remove vacuum valve cage from chest and plug it on 
inner end and screw it back in place. 



250 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 136.—If, when throttle was closed, steam showed at cylinder 
cocks, what might be the cause? 

A.—It might be a leaky throttle or a leaky dry pipe. 

Q. 137.—How would you test to determine whether throttle or 
dry pipe was leaking? 

A.—Close the lubricator valves, and the air pump throttle if the 
exhaust from pump were tapped into cylinder saddles, fill boiler with 
water so I would have the dry pipe covered with water, have cylinder 
cocks open, and if dry steam showed at cylinder cocks the throttle 
would be leaking; if water showed with a little steam, would report 
dry pipe leaking. 

Q. 138.—What would you do if the transmission bar hanger 
became broken? 

A.—Support it with a chain or several strands of wire; if necessary 
would fit block above bar between strands of the chain or wire to 
prevent bar from raising up when lever was hooked up. 

Q. 139.—What would you do if transmission bar were broken? 

A.—It would depend on where bar was broken; if broken near 
rocker arm connection, would block valve central, support front 
end of bar with chain or wire, provide for lubrication and free circu¬ 
lation of air and proceed. If broken near link, would take down 
broken parts necessary, clamp valve centrally, provide for lubrica¬ 
tion and circulation and proceed. 

Q. 140.—Why is the throttle placed as high as possible in the 
dome? 

A.—To get the steam at as high a temperature and as dry as 
possible. 

Q. 141.—What are the cylinder cocks for? 

A.—To free the cylinders of condensation. 

Q. 142.—Why is it necessary to keep the cylinders free from 
condensation? 

A.—To prevent knocking out cylinder heads, breaking packing 
rings, and washing off lubrication from walls of cylinder. 

Note.—Water is not compressible and if left in cylinders when the 
piston moved toward the head, the water not being able to get out 
and being solid, would damage the head or packing rings. 

Q. 143.—In what manner can both valves be placed on center 
of seat at the same time? 

A.—Place engine on either quarter on one side and reverse lever 
in center of quadrant, go to the other side and disconnect lower 
eccentric blade from link, move the link until rocker arm is at right 
angles to valve rod, and you will have both valves central. 

Note.—The above applies to the Stephenson gear; with the Wal- 
schaert gear you will get the same results by placing engine on 
quarter and reverse lever in center of rack, then on the other side 
disconnect combination lever and move it until its upper end is at 
right angles to valve rod, and both valves will be central. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


251 


Q. 144.—Name the various causes for pounds. 

A.—Loose or lost cylinder key; piston head loose on piston rod; 
loose follower bolts; piston rod loose in crosshead; main rod too long 
or too short; cylinder bushing loose and a little short; wrist pin loose 
in crosshead; rod brasses loose on pins or not keyed properly; pedes¬ 
tal binder loose; wedge down on binder or not properly adjusted; 
wedge not right taper; axle worn out of round; driving box brass 
worn large for axle; driving box broken; engine frame broken; cross¬ 
head loose in guides; knuckle pins or their bushings in side rods worn. 

Q. 145.—When does the loose follower head pound the most? 

A.—When drifting with throttle closed. 

Q. 146.—When does the main rod too long or too short pound? 

A.—When drifting with throttle closed, because the weight of 
piston will take up all the slack in main rod and its connections and 
cause piston to strike the head of cylinder. 

Note.—If main rod is too short, piston will strike back head of 
cylinder as crank passes back center, when drifting with throttle 
if closed; too long, the piston will strike front cylinder head as crank 
passes front center, when drifting with throttle closed. To protect 
cylinder heads, open throttle and the steam admitted to cylinder 
account of the lead will cushion piston and take up all of the lost ihotion 
in rod and connections, preventing piston head striking cylinder head. 

Q. 147.—When does the loose piston head on rod, or piston rod 
loose in the crosshead pound hardest? 

A.—When working steam, and crank pins are passing centers. 

Q. 148.—How do you locate the loose piston head or rod? 

A.—It can be located when running along working steam; you 
will get a heavy pound when crank pin on defective side is crossing 
back center and a lighter pound when crank is crossing front center. 

Standing test.—Place engine on top quarter on side you desire to 
test, open the throttle and work lever from one corner to the other 
of quadrant; if piston is loose you will get a heavy pound when lever 
goes toward the front corner, and a lighter pound when lever goes 
toward the back corner. 

Note.—The piston head is taper fitted on end of rod and rod is 
taper fitted into crosshead, consequently when steam is admitted 
back of piston, the piston moves away from the taper, and the farther 
it moves the less resistance it has, and it strikes the nuts on end of 
rod a hard blow; but when the steam is admitted ahead of piston it 
goes against the taper and is slowed down by friction so that it loses 
force so that it strikes the shoulder a very light blow. 

Q. 149.—How would you be able to detect the loose cylinder 
bushing? 

A.—This defect can only be located while engine is in motion and 
workingsteam. The pound occurs at each end of stroke of piston, just 
after pin passes the center and generally before it reaches the eighth. 

Note.—The cylinder packing rings are expanded by the steam 
against the walls of the bushing, and the friction moves the bushing 
until it strikes the cylinder head. 




252 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 150.—How do you test for cylinder packing blow? 

A.—It may be located while running along working steam; you 
will have an intermittent blow at the exhaust, the blow at exhaust 
occurring just after the crank on defective side leaves the center, 
getting stronger up to the eighth, and stopping as soon as valve 
closes communication between admission port and exhaust at other 
end of cylinder. 

Standing test.—Place engine on top forward eighth, set brake and 
place reverse lever in forward corner of rack, block front cylinder 
cock open, admit steam to cylinder and if steam shows at front cylin¬ 
der cock the cylinder packing rings are defective. _ 

Note.—The reason for placing engine on the eighth for this test 
is that cylinder wears most from center to forward end and the rings 
might not show defective with piston back of center. 

Note.—The old way for this test (and it is a good one). Place 
engine on top quarter on side you desire to test, reverse lever in 
front corner, set brake, open cylinder cocks, admit steam and if 
steam shows at front cylinder cock it indicates that packing is 
defective. 

Q. 151.—Why is the link saddle pin (suspension stud) placed to 
one side of the center of link? 

A.—To overcome the effect of the angularity of the main rod. 

Q. 152.—Why have side (parallel) rods on mogul and consolidation 
types of engines knuckle joints? 

A.—To allow for the free movement of the wheels over uneven 
track, without straining the pins and rods. 

Q. 153.—What are the pedestal braces (binders) of locomotives? 

A.—They are a detachable portion of the lower frame rail, made 
of bars of iron or steel to bind the lower end of jaws for driving 
boxes, after the boxes and wheels are in place. 

Q. 154.—How is a locomotive boiler attached to engine frame? 

A.—The boiler is solidly attached to cylinder saddles with bolts, 
and the cylinder saddles are solidly attached to frame w r ith bolts 
and saddle keys, and at the rear end the boiler is supported on frame 
by expansion plates which are attached to boiler and rest on frame, or 
by hangers which are hinged on plates attached to boiler and frame. 

Note.—The expansion plates are constructed so that they move 
backward and forward easily on frame, and still support rear end 
of boiler; this is a necessary arrangement because the boiler expands 
and contracts more than the frame does and these expansion plates 
or hangers guard against the strain on boiler and frame which would 
obtain if boiler were solidly attached to frame at rear end as well 
as at front end. It is well to observe that the bolts holding the 
expansion plates are properly fitted so that the expansion plate does 
not bind on the cap too hard. 

Q. 155.—How would you handle a hot eccentric? 

A.—See that all oil holes are clean and that the lubrication is 
getting to the bearing. If the strap is too tight on cam would loosen 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


253 


nuts on strap bolts and put in liners enough to make it free, then 
tighten the strap bolts. If the strap is too loose on the cam, causing 
it to pound hot, would loosen strap bolts and remove liners enough 
to make strap fit the cam. 

Q. 156.—Would you use water on a hot eccentric? 

A.—No. 

Q. 157.—Why would you not use water to cool a hot eccentric? 

A.—Because the strap is so much lighter than the cam that it 
would cool off faster than the cam and contract and tighten on cam 
until it bursted, and the cam would contract faster than the axle, 
causing the cam to burst. 

Q. 158.—How would you handle a hot driving box to cool it down 
and prevent cutting the bearing? 

A.—Would be sure that the bearing was getting the lubrication; 
if it did not cool down then, I would run the wheel up on a wedge and 
block on top of frame under the spring saddle, or under the ends of 
the arch equalizer to relieve the box of weight. 

Q. 159.—Is it good practice to use water on a very hot bearing? 

A.—No. It causes crystallization and weakens the metal, eventu¬ 
ally resulting in a break. 

Q. 160.—What will cause crystallization and weakening of metals 
used in bearings, besides sudden expansion and contraction? 

A.—A continual bending of the metal or a constant hammering 
of the metal while it is cold will cause the molecules to crystallize, 
forming what we generally call a coarse grain (crystallization), and 
as the grains of the metal become coarser the metal grows weaker 
at that point. 

Note.—This effect is clearly noticeable in driving pins which are 
broken in line with the boss of the wheel; the oil on the broken ends 
will show that the pin has been gradually separating until only a 
small portion of the pin is intact, then a sudden strain separates 
that portion so the break shows just how much of the metal was 
holding before the break. 

Note.—When rod brasses pound on the pins, the hammer blow 
which the pin receives, when the piston starts backward and forward 
in the cylinder, taking up the lost motion in the brasses, causes the 
pin to bend at point in line with the face of the wheel, starting the 
weakening of the pin at that point through crystallization. 

Q. 161.—What is the effect of leaky steam pipes or exhaust joints? 

A.—It prevents forming a vacuum in the front end and stops .the 
draught on the fire, causing the fire to burn a dull red color and engine 
will not steam. 

Q. 162.—How would you test for leaky steam pipes? 

A.—Place the reverse lever in the center of the quadrant, open 
the front end door, apply the brake, pull the throttle wide open to 
admit full steam pressure to the pipes, and with a lighted torch try 
around the joints for leaks—the leak will be shown by the flare of 
the flame. 



254 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Note.—The reason for opening the throttle wide is that the great 
pressure inside the pipe has a tendency to straighten it out and will 
develop a leak if one exists, and a lighted torch is the only sure way 
to locate the leak, because the escaping steam is'not visible, and the 
old idea that the cinders will be bldwn away from the leaking joint 
is not reliable for the reason that chemical action takes place in 
cinders, causing them to form a porous mass solidly knitted together 
through which the steam will pass without moving the cinders. 

Q. 163.—How would you test for a leaky exhaust joint? 

A.—The best way is to get the engine on a clear straight piece of 
track, open the front end door and have the fireman start the engine 
moving; then apply the brake and open the throttle wide; take a 
lighted torch and try around the nozzle joints for the leak, testing 
both sides; the escaping steam will blow the flame of the torch and 
locate leak. 

Another way.—Place the engine on the quarter (top or bottom), 
open the front end door, have the fireman set the brake, open the 
throttle and move the reverse lever back and forth from corner to 
corner of the rack, take the lighted torch and try the joint on that 
side of the exhaust for the leak; place the engine on the quarter on 
the other side and test it in the same manner. 

Note.—It is necessary to get a strong exhaust from each side to 
locate the defective joint; the base of the nozzle is divided into two 
openings by a partition which comes over the joint between saddle 
castings, therefore the reason for moving the engine to the quarter 
on each side for the test. 

Note.—Another way to test for leaky nozzle joint is to place the 
engine on the top or bottom eighths; having the front end door open, 
set the brake, open the throttle, and move the reverse lever from 
corner to corner of the rack, trying for the leak around joint with 
lighted torch; in this way both sides may be tested without moving 
the engine, but it is not very reliable, because the exhaust will not 
be strong. 

The best way to test is with the engine moving slowly with brake 
set and throttle wide open, where it is possible to do it that way, 
and the next best way is to place the engine on the quarter. 

Q. 164.—What would cause you to test for leaky steam pipes or 
exhaust joint? 

A.—The fire dying down and burning a blood red color and the 
exhaust not working the fire as it should when you begin to work 
steam, and the engine not steaming while working steam, but the 
fire burns brightly and engine steams as soon as throttle is closed. 
Sometimes the blow may be heard when the fire-box door is opened. 

Note.—When the air pump has an independent exhaust in the 
front end it gets disconnected or broken off, and it will affect the fire 
the same as the leaky steam pipes or exhaust joint, only the leaky 
air pump exhaust will affect the fire and steaming of the engine all 
of the time as long as the air pump is working, while the leaky steam 
pipe joint or nozzle joint will only affect the fire when working steam. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


255 


Q. 165.—How would you test for pounds in main driving box? 

A.—Place the engine on top quarter on side you desire to test, 
have the fireman open throttle, and move reverse lever from corner 
to corner of rack; watch movement of box to locate pound. 

Q. 166.—Why do you place engine on top quarter on side you 
desire to test for pounds in driving box? 

A.—To get the power applied as near as possible to the point 
you desire to move. 

Note.—With pin on top quarter, all of the lost motion in box will 
be taken up before there is any liability of the wheel slipping. 

Q. 167.—What are the principal causes for pounds in main driving 
box? 

A.—Loose or broken pedestal binder, improperly lined shoe or 
wedge, wedge loose or down on binder, journal badly worn out of 
round or small, brass badly worn too large for journal, driving box 
brass broken, driving box broken. 

Q. 168.—What other causes for pounds have we besides those 
affecting the driving boxes? 

A.—Loose or lost cylinder key, loose follower bolts, piston head 
loose on piston rod, cylinder bushing short and loose in cylinder, 
piston rod loose in crosshead^ lost motion between crosshead and 
guides, wrist pin loose in crosshead, rod brasses too large for driving 
pins, rod brasses loose in strap^ knuckle pins or their bushings badly 
worn, engine frame broken and main rods keyed too long or too 
short so that piston head strikes cylinder head. 

Q. 169.—Are all wedges alike in the manner of adjustment? 
How do they differ? 

A.—No. Some are forced up by having the wedge bolt screwed 
through the binders, others have the wedge bolt passed through 
hole in binder, and have to be pried or pinched up and are secured 
and held in place with nuts on wedge bolt on top of binder. 

Q. 170.—When should wedges be reported to be lined? 

A.—When the wedge has been moved up as far as it will go and 
the box still pounds. 

Note.—The box is up as far as it will go when it strikes the top 
frame rail. 

Q. 171.—When should wedges be set up? 

A.—When the driving box is pounding between wedge and shoe. 

Q. 172.—What work about the engine should be done by the 
engineer? 

A.—Setting up the wedges, keying up rod brasses, and any other 
necessary work while on the road to insure a successful trip and pre¬ 
vent engine failure. 

Q. 173.—At what time or place should wedges be set up to obtain 
the best results? 

A.—Either on arrival at terminal at completion of trip or at 
some place on road after engine has been pulling train and working 
hard; then the frame and other parts are expanded so that the wedges 
can be properly adjusted under the right conditions. 



256 


ENGINE-MEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 174.—How do you proceed to set up wedges? 

A.—Get the engine on a piece of straight level track, place her 
on the top quarter on side you desire to set up first, cut out driver 
brake and apply tender and truck brake, or block tender and truck 
wheels; admit a little-steam with reverse lever in forward corner— 
this will pull the box away from the wedge—go under the engine and 
set the wedge up as far as it will go; then pull it down one-eighth of 
an inch for dope packed boxes and one-quarter of an inch for hard 
grease packed boxes, to allow for expansion of box and prevent the 
wedge and box from sticking; set up the main wedge first, then the 
other ones; handle the other side in the same way. 

Another way.—Place the engine on the top back eighth on the 
side you desire to work on first, having engine on straight level 
track; put block on rail ahead of wheel on opposite side, with reverse 
lever in the forward corner; admit steam to pull box away from wedge, 
set up the wedge as explained above, set up the opposite main wedge 
in same way, then handle the others one at a time. 

Another way.—Place the engine on top forward eighth on right 
side, then it will be on top back eighth on left side (if a right lead 
engine); set tender brake, place reverse lever in forward corner, 
admith steam to cylinders, pulling both sides away-from wedges; 
go under engine, set up main wedges first, then the others, as ex¬ 
plained above. 

A good way where solid rods are newly fitted with bushings.— 
Place block on rail back of driver so that when wheel hit it the-rods 
will be on dead center, start the engine moving back and let her drift 
onto the block; this will throw the box away from wedge so wedge 
can be set up to the box, and it prevents getting rods and boxes out 
of tram; handle each wheel in same manner, setting up main wedges 
first. 

Another way.—Place engine on dead center on side you are to 
work at wedges, use pinch bar to throw wheels ahead, then set up 
wedges. 

Note.—The last explanation is for the method generally used by 
mechanics on dead engines and new work, but it is always best to 
have the engine hot and parts expanded when wedges are to be ad¬ 
justed. 

Note.—Where engines have keyed side rods it is a good method 
to slack back the keys before setting up the wedges. 

Q. 175.—What would you do if wedge bolt broke and the wedge 
came down on top of binder? 

A.—Sometimes the broken wedge bolt can be spliced with a nut 
and then the wedge can be adjusted with the bolt. If this is impos¬ 
sible, raise the wedge to proper height and secure it there by block¬ 
ing it top and bottom with nuts lashed to the jaws. 

Q. 176.—How would you handle a stuck wedge to get it down? 

A.—Strain down on wedge with wedge bolt, then run the wheel 
over a nut or coal pick placed on rail; this will generally bring them 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


257 


down; but if it does not, slack off on the binder bolts and run over 
the block on rail again; this failing, loosen up more on the binder and 
run the wheels ahead and back of the one with stuck wedge up on 
wedges, having both up at the same time; this will open the jaws of 
the box and the wedge will come down; tighten the binder and ad¬ 
just the wedge so it will not stick again. 

Note.—Sometimes a little signal oil or kerosene oil poured in be¬ 
tween jaw and wedge and box and wedge will help to lubricate it so 
it will come down. 

Q. 177.—How do you locate a stuck wedge, and what would cause 
you to think a wedge was seized or stuck? 

A.—The engine would ride hard and every rail joint would cause 
a heavy jar, as though engine had no springs, when wedge is stuck. 

To locate the stuck wedge, would go out on running board and 
note the movement of boxes in jaws; if a box was not moving up and 
down in the jaws when the engine was in motion, the wedge at that 
box is stuck. 

Q. 178.—Why are side rods provided with knuckle joints? 

A.—To allow for the free movement of the wheels over uneven 
track without bending or breaking the side rods. 

Q. 179.—How would you proceed to key the side rods on a mogul 
or a consolidation engine? 

A.—Have the wedges properly set up; place engine on dead center 
on side you are to key first, having engine on piece of straight, level 
track; on engines having but a single key at intermediate and front 
and back connections, drive the key at intermediate connection on 
side next main pin, first keying brasses so they are close to pin and 
still move freely on pin; then key the brasses at main connection, 
driving key in solid portion of rod first so as to get that part of the 
rod of proper length between main and intermediate pins; then drive 
the other pin at main connection to close brasses to fit pin closely, 
but move freely on pin; then key the forward and backward brasses, 
move engine to the other dead center, and try all brasses to be sure 
that they move freely at that point also. 

Note.—When keying brasses on side rods, keys should be driven 
so rods will be as long as possible between pins and still move freely 
at all points of the revolution, and if there is any slack in the rods, 
it should be lengthways so there will be no strain on the rods when the 
wheels are moving up and down over the uneven track; this will 
make the knuckle joints and brasses wear longer without renewal. 

Note.—Where there are two keys at the intermediate connection, 
the main connection may be keyed first, then drive the key nearest 
the main pin at the intermediate connection to get the solid portion 
of rod the proper length, using key on other side of pin to close brasses 
to fit pin, and if two keys are used at each of the forward and back 
ends of the rod, always drive the key on side towards main pin first 
so that the rods will be proper length between pins; then after you 
have the brasses all keyed, be sure to place the engine on the other 



258 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


center to make sure that brasses are free at that point, because a 
pin sprung or drivers out of tram might cause the rods to bind and 
run hot. 

Q. 180.—Why place the engine on the dead center on side rods 
to be keyed when keying side rods? 

A.—To prevent keying the side rods too long or too short, or out 
of tram. 

Q. 181.—If side rods are keyed too long or too short, where will 
they bind? 

A.—Passing the dead centers, because that is the rigid point, 
and all the relative wheel and pin centers must be equally distant 
from each other and are held rigidly in that position passing the dead 
centers. 

Note.—The dead wedges or shoes are placed in the driving box 
jaws in front of the driving boxes, to determine the proper location 
for the wheel centers, and maintain the wheel centers in their correct 
relative positions (in tram) when the live wedges are properly ad¬ 
justed. 

Q. 182.—What is meant by “engine out of tram”? 

A.—When the distance between wheel centers on one side of en¬ 
gine is greater or less than the distance between the corresponding 
wheel centers on the other side. 

Q. 183.—What is meant by “rods out of tram”? 

A.—When the rods are keyed or fitted up so that the distance 
between pin centers is greater or less than the distance between the 
corresponding wheel centers. 

Q. 184.—When should rod brasses be reported to be closed or 
refitted? 

A.—When they are keyed solidly brass to brass and pounding on 
pin. 

Q. 185.—When should rod brasses be reported to be lined? 

A.—When the key is driven as far as possible and the brasses are 
working in the strap. 

Q. 186.—How do you place engine to locate pounds in main rod 
brasses and why in that position? 

A.—Place engine on bottom quarter on side to be tested, set brake, 
admit steam tp cylinder and work reverse lever back and forth, 
watch brasses. We place the engine on bottom quarter so as to have 
the pin between two rigid points, and then any lost motion in brasses 
will show before box would move or the wheel slip. 

Q. 187.—Where do you place engine to key back end of main rod 
and why there? 

A.—On dead center, so as to key brasses against largest part of 
crank pin. 

Q. 188.—Where do you place engine to key front end of main rod 
brasses and why there? 

A.—On top or bottom quarter. Generally bottom quarter so as 
to key against largest part of pin, and on bottom quarter because it is 
easier to get at set screw that holds front end key. 





ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


259 


Q. 189.—What would you do if the main rod broke? 

A.—Remove broken parts and disconnect valve rod and block 
valve to cover admission ports, block crosshead, remove cylinder 
cocks, put collar on main pin and provide for lubrication. 

Q. 190.—What would you do if the piston rod broke off at cross¬ 
head? 

A.—Remove broken parts, disconnect valve rod, block valve to 
cover the admission ports and proceed. 

Note.—Most likely the piston would have gone out through the 
front cylinder head. 

Q. 191.—What would you do if front cylinder head broke? 

A. —Disconnect valve rod, block valve with back admission port 
slightly open, remove back cylinder cock. 

Note.—Do not take down main rod. 

Note.—If in dusty weather, would cover front end of cylinder with 
gunny sack or boards. 

Another way:—Disconnect valve rod, block valve centrally on its 
•seat, remove back cylinder cock, board up front end of cylinder, 
placing a swat of waste saturated with oil in cylinder. 

Another way.—Disconnect valve rod, block valve centrally on its 
seat, disconnect main rod, put collar on main pin and block crosshead. 

Q. 192.—With the Walschaert valve motion explain how you 
could disconnect for broken eccentric, eccentric rod, or link foot. 

A.—Disconnect eccentric rod and remove other broken parts, 
disconnect back end of radius rod and block link block in center of 
the link. 

Note.—When blocking link block in link of Walschaert’s valve gear 
block above and below it. in slot of link. 

Q. 193.—What would you do if link trunnion pin broke? 

A. —Take down eccentric rod, disconnect back end of radius rod 
and block link block in center of link, then wedge the link in place by 
driving wedge between trunnon pin bracket and link on side where 
the trunion pin is broken. 

Q. 194.—What would you do when link trunnion pin bracket 
breaks? 

A.—Take down eccentric rod, disconnect both ends of radius rod 
and take link and radius rod out, block valve centrally on seat, pro¬ 
vide for lubrication and free circulation of air in cylinder. 

Note.—If link can not be readily removed, support forward end 
of radius rod and chain link so as it will carry, allowing back end of 
radius rod to carry with link block at bottom of link. 

Q. 195.—What would you do with broken valve stem or valve 
yoke of Walschaert’s valve motion? 

A. —Block valve centrally on seat, disconnect forward end of 
radius rod and support it underneath the running board, provide for 
lubrication and free circulation and proceed. 

Note.—With link block in center of link and combination lever 
(lap and lead lever) at right angles to it the valve will be centrally 
on its seat. 



260 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Note.—To secure the valve centrally where yoke or stem is broken 
locate the central position, clamp valve stem, then remove the 
vacuum valve and block it against the valve, or if it is a piston valve, 
remove the front head to valve chamber and cut piece of board (that 
is nearly as wide as diameter of valve chamber) to fit between valve 
in central position and head of valve chamber. 

Note.—Some desire as an extra precaution to stop all motion of 
radius rod when front end of it is disconnected and supported up. 
To do this you may remove eccentric rod, or disconnect back end of 
radius rod and block link block in center of link. 

Note.—When the forward end of radius rod is supported and 
eccentric rod is taken down, the link block does not always move 
freely in link and at times bothers in handling the reverse lever, 
consequently the better way to stop motion of radius rod is to dis¬ 
connect back end of it and block link block in center of link. 

Q. 196.—What would you do in case of broken reversing lever? 
Reach rod or reversing arm, or lifting shaft, Walschaert’s valve gear? 

A.—If reversing arm extended up through running board and was 
not broken, could block forward and back of it in slot in running 
board to hold link blocks at the desired point of cut-off, otherwise 
would have to block above and below both link blocks in slot of link 
to hold link blocks at the desired point of cut-off, necessary to start 
and handle train. 

Q. 197.—What would you do in case of a broken radius arm or 
radius arm hanger? 

A.—Remove the broken parts and block link block in slot of link 
to get the desired point of cut-off to handle train. 

Note.—With the Walschaert valve gear. Where one link block 
is blocked as above the other side may be worked at a longer or 
shorter cut-off as desired. 

Q. 198.—What would you do in case of a broken radius rod? 

A.—Remove the broken part from the combination lever—support 
the forward end of radius rod, secure valve centrally on seat, provide 
for lubrication and free circulation in cylinders and proceed. 

Note.—Absolute safety is provided by disconnecting back end of 
radius rod and blocking link block in center of link. 

Q. 199.—What would you do in case of a broken lap and lead lever, 
union link or crosshead arm? 

A.—Remove broken parts necessary, block valve centrally on its 
seat, support front end of radius rod, provide for lubrication and free 
circulation and proceed. 

Note.—Where lap and lead lever is not broken the lower end of it 
may be secured to back cylinder cock. 

Note.—Many engines have the front end of radius rod constructed 
so it can be connected to back end of valve rod, when the lap and lead 
lever is taken down. On such engines it is a good plan in accidents 
of this kind to make the connection between radius rod and valve rod. 
This will give enough movement to valve to provide the lubrication 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


261 


to cylinder but will not aid much in handling the train because the 
eccentric only moves the valve far enough to open ports wide if the 
valve had no lap, and the engine working full stroke, and as the cut¬ 
off is shortened by hooking up of lever so is travel of valve shortened 
and with lever hooked up the lap of valve would prevent much port 
opening and the angularity of main rod would cause an unequal 
distribution, so the actions of steam on disabled side would be erratic 
at the best, and the ports would only be open a very little and for 
only an instant when cranks were passing the quarters on the dis¬ 
abled side. 

Q. 200.—What would you do in case of a broken crosshead, cross¬ 
head pin, main rod or main rod straps or brasses, Walschaert’s valve 
gear? 

A.—Disconnect main rod and remove other broken parts neces¬ 
sary, put collar on pin, secure valve centrally on its seat, disconnect 
forward end of radius rod and support it. Block crosshead at back 
end of guides, remove cylinder cocks and proceed. 

Note.—The motion of radius rod may be stopped if desired as 
explained before. 

Q. 201.—What would you do if the main rod crank pin broke? 

A.—Block valve centrally on its seat, disconnect and support 
forward end of radius rod, take down eccentric rod and remove straps 
and brasses at back end of main rod; block crosshead at forward end 
of guides and carry main rod in guides. Take down all side rods and 
remove cylinder cocks on disabled side. 

Q. 202.—What would you do if piston rod broke? 

A.—Secure valve centrally on its seat, disconnect and support 
forward end of radius rod. Take off cylinder head and remove 
piston from cylinder. Motion of radius rod may be stopped, if de¬ 
sired. 

Q. 203.—How would you handle a piston valve if stem were broken 
inside of valve chamber? 

A.—Get valve rod at right angles to rocker arm, clamp valve 
stem, remove front valve chamber head and push valve back against 
stem, then cut piece of board or plank (that is nearly as wide as the 
diameter of valve chamber) to reach from valve head and screw head 
against it. Disconnect valve rod, provide for lubrication, free the 
cylinder and proceed. 

Q. 204.—What is the necessity of keeping brasses keyed properly? 

A.—To prevent pounding and to keep the rod the proper length. 

Q. 205.—How should main rod brasses be keyed? 

A.—They should be keyed as close as possible to avoid pounds 
and so they will move freely on pin at all points in the revolution. 

Q. 206.—Describe a piston valve. 

A.—It is a hollow spool-shaped casting with packing rings (in the 
heads that form its ends) that make a steam-tight joint with the 
walls of the valve chamber. 



262 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 207.—What is the relative motion of the piston and valve for 
inside admission valve? For outside admission valve? 

A.—The inside admission valve moves in opposite direction to 
piston for admission and with the piston for cut-off, expansion and 
exhaust. The outside admission valve moves with the piston for 
admission and in the opposite direction for cut-off, expansion, and 
exhaust. 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 


Q. 1.—Wherein do compound locomotives differ from ordinary 
or simple ones? 

A.—Compound locomotives differ from the ordinary type in that 
a simple engine has but one set of cylinders of the same diameter 
and uses the steam but once, while a compound or double expansion 
engine has either two or four cylinders of varying diameters, and the 
steam, after passing through the first cylinder and losing part of its 
energy, passes into the second cylinder, where a certain amount of 
its remaining energy is used. Simple and compound engines consist 
of two engines, coupled to the same set of driving wheels. Balanced 
compounds have four sets of main rods and crank pins, and Mallet 
compounds have two complete sets of engines under one boiler. 

Q. 2.—Why is one cylinder on a compound locomotive called the 
high pressure cylinder and the other one the low pressure cylinder? 

A.—Because the high pressure cylinder takes its steam directly 
from the boiler at nearly initial boiler pressure, while the low pres¬ 
sure cylinder, under ordinary conditions, receives the steam from 
the high pressure cylinder and works with a low pressure. It is al¬ 
ways larger than the high pressure cylinder in order to get the same 
power from the low pressure steam. 

Q. 3.—In the Schenectady two-cylinder compound, what is the 
duty of the oil dashpot? 

A.—To insure a steady movement of the intercepting valve, 
without shock, which might damage the valve or seat, and in order 
to keep it working properly, the oil dashpot should be kept full of oil. 

Q. 4.—Explain how a Schenectady two-cylinder compound may 
be operated as a simple engine? 

A.—Place the handle of the three-way cock so as to allow air 
pressure to flow from the main reservoir to the cylinder of the sep¬ 
arate exhaust valve. This will open the separate exhaust valve 
and let the steam from the high pressure cylinder exhaust to atmos¬ 
phere. The intercepting valve will allow live steam to feed through 
the reducing valve at a reduced pressure to the low pressure cylin¬ 
der when the separate exhaust valve is open. When starting a train 
or when moving slowly and about to stall on a grade, it should be 
operated as a simple engine. It should not be operated as simple 
when running at high speed. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


263 


Q. 5.—Explain how a two-cylinder compound is changed from 
simple to compound. 

A.—Place the handle of the three-way cock in the cab so as to 
release the air from the cylinder of the separate exhaust valve. A 
coil spring will then close this valve, causing the exhaust steam of 
the high pressure cylinder to accumulate in the receiver until suffi¬ 
cient pressure is obtained to force the intercepting valve into com¬ 
pound position, thereby shutting off live steam from the main throt¬ 
tle to the low pressure cylinder and opening a passage so steam from 
the receiver will feed to the low pressure steam chest. 

Q. 6.—How should a compound engine be lubricated? 

A.—In lubricating a compound engine one-third more oil should 
be fed to the high than to the low pressure cylinder, and at high 
speed more oil should be fed than at low speed. 

Q. 7.—Why feed more oil to high than to a low pressure cylinder? 

A.—Because some of the oil from the high pressure cylinder fol¬ 
lows the steam into the low pressure cylinder. 

Q. 8.—How would you lubricate the valve of low pressure cylin¬ 
der if the oil feed became inoperative on that side? 

A.—Feed an increased quantity through oil pipe connecting to 
intercepting valve, then, by shutting engine off occasionally and 
cutting into simple position, oil will go direct from intercepting valve 
into low pressure steam chest and cylinder. This would avoid going 
out on steam chest and disconnecting pipe and oil by hand. 

Q. 9.—How much water should be carried in the boiler of a com¬ 
pound locomotive? 

A.—Not more than two gauges or about one-half of a water glass. 
In case of broken glass, do not allow water to drop below a flutter in 
top cock when working. No more than this amount should be car¬ 
ried, in order to assure the delivery of dry steam to cylinders, as wet 
steam is particularly injurious to compound locomotives. 

Q. 10.—How should a compound locomotive be started with a 
long train? 

A.—Always in simple position, with cylinder cocks open. 

Q. 11.—When drifting, what should be the position of the separate 
exhaust valve, the cylinder and port cocks? 

A.—Should be in open position. 

Q. 12.—What will cause two exhausts of air to blow from the 
three-way cock or simpling valve in the cab when the engine is being 
changed to compound? 

A.—Exhaust valve being sticky. When air is first discharged it 
does not move. When it does move, the second exhaust comes. 

Q. 13.—What does steam blowing at the three-way cock indicate? 

A.—The separate exhaust valve not seating properly, caused by 
stuck valves, weak or broken spring, and the packing rings of separate 
exhaust valve leaking. 



264 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 14.—What can be done if the engine will not operate com¬ 
pound when the air pressure in the separate exhaust valve is released 
by the three-way cock? 

A.—The cause of this is the separate exhaust valve failing to 
close. Try tapping it with hammer on the front of the saddle near 
the exhaust valve. In case this will not cause the valve to close, 
disconnect the air pipe connection to the separate exhaust valve, 
take the nuts off the center circle of studs around the separate ex¬ 
haust valve, pull out the casting, and, if the valve is not broken, it 
can be closed and replaced. 

Q. 15.—If the engine stands with high pressure side on the dead 
center and will not move when given steam, where is the trouble, 
and what may be done to start the engine? Why? 

A.—Intercepting valve is stuck in compound position, so live 
steam cannot get to the low pressure cylinder. In a case of this 
kind, close the main throttle, open the cylinder and port cocks, and, 
when all pressure is relieved, use a bar to shove forward the rod 
that works through the oil dashpot; this will move the intercepting 
valve to the simple position, admitting steam to the low pressure 
cylinder as soon as the throttle is open. The engine will not start 
for the reason that with the low pressure piston on quarter, steam 
must be admitted to its cylinder to start the engine. 

Q. 16.—In the event of a breakdown, how should one disconnect? 

A.—Disconnect the same as with a simple engine and run with 
the separate exhaust valve open, working engine simple instead of 
compound. 

Q. 17.—What may be done to shut off steam pressure from the 
steam chest and low pressure cylinder? 

A.—Pull out as far as it will come the rod that runs through the 
oil dashpot and fasten it in this position, and open the separate ex¬ 
haust valve. 

Q. 18.—Is it important that air be pumped up on a two-cylinder 
compound before the engine is moved? Why? 

A.—Yes, it is very important, because the separate exhaust valve 
is opened by air, and the engine will not operate as a simple engine 
until sufficient air pressure is obtained to open this valve. 

Q. 19.—How are the blows in a compound located? 

A.—Blows in a compound may be located the same as in a sim¬ 
ple engine, with the exception that any blow on the high pressure 
side of engine will not be heard when the separate exhaust valve 
is closed. A blow on the high pressure side of the engine will cause 
the relief valves on the low pressure cylinder to pop when working 
the engine with full throttle compound. 

Q- 20.—-What should be done if high pressure piston of a cross 
compound is broken off the rod, or if the high pressure or low pres¬ 
sure cylinder head is broken? 

A.—Cover the ports on that side, open the separate exhaust 
valve, and run in, using live steam in low pressure cylinder only. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


265 


If high pressure cylinder head is broken off, cover ports on that 
side, open separate exhaust and run in, using live steam on low 
pressure side only. Do not take down main rod, but take out pop 
valves, front and back heads of cylinder, and see that the cylinder 
is properly oiled. If low pressure cylinder head is broken off, cover 
the ports on that side, open the separate exhaust valve, and run in 
with high pressure side. Do not take down main rod, but see that 
the cylinder is well oiled. 

Q. 21.—In the event of separate exhaust valves failing to work 
when throttle is wide open, what can be done to assist in opening? 

A.—Ease the throttle off very fine, which in a moment or two 
will reduce the receiver pressure so that the separate exhaust valve 
will move. If this does not have the desired effect, shut off entirely, 
even at the risk of stalling, as in that event train can be started from 
a dead stand with engine cut into simple. 

Q. 22.—If a transmission bar on a cross compound is broken, 
what would you do for the right side? For the left side? 

A.—If on the right side, cover ports, fasten valve stem, take out 
pops from cylinder heads, open separate exhaust valve, and, leaving 
main rod up, run in with high pressure cylinder only, looking care¬ 
fully to its lubrication; if on the left side, cover ports, fasten valve 
stem, take out pop valves from cylinder heads, open separate ex¬ 
haust valve, and leave main rod up, run in with live steam on low 
pressure side only. 

Q. 23.—How test for piston packing blow with balanced com¬ 
pound? 

A.—To test the high pressure piston packing on a Baldwin bal¬ 
anced compound, the engine should be placed with the outside main 
pin on that side of the engine on the bottom quarter, the reverse 
lever in the forward notch, close starting valve, block drivers or set 
brakes solid, remove indicator plug in the front end of either the 
high or low pressure cylinder. Steam will be admitted to the back 
end of high pressure cylinder with the throttle thrown open. There 
will be a leak past the piston or the high pressure valve if steam 
escapes out of this plug opening. If in doubt, next test the high pres¬ 
sure valve by moving the reverse lever to the center notch. This 
should cover the ports, and if the valve is tight the blow will cease. 
Stand the engine in the same position, with the wheels blocked, in 
testing the low pressure piston, open starting valve, back indicator 
plug out. When throttle is opened, the leaky packing will be shown 
by steam escaping from the plug opening. If in doubt, test valve 
by bringing reverse lever to center of quadrant; this will spot valve 
over port and, if it is tight, the blow will cease. A blow past the 
high pressure packing tends to increase the pressure in the low pres¬ 
sure cylinder, in compound engines. A blow past the low pressure 
packing is heard at the exhaust, and is generally on both forward 
and back strokes, while a blow past the by-pass valves or valve 
bushings occurs only at a certain part of a complete revolution. 



266 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 24.—In case it was necessary to disconnect on one side of a com¬ 
pound engine, how would you cover ports and hold valves in po¬ 
sition? 

A.—Clamp the valve stem to hold valve in central position. 
All ports should be covered by doing this. It may be necessary to 
remove head of piston valve chest and block in there. 

Q. 25.—Is it a disadvantage to work a compound engine in short 
cut-off? Why? 

A.—It is. If cut-off is too short, steam passing the throttle will 
not get to the low pressure cylinder in its proper proportion. The 
work should be divided between the two cylinders on the same side. 

Q. 26.—In what way do the Mallet or articulated compounds 
differ from the other steam locomotives in the distribution of the 
steam? 

A.—It differs both in construction and in steam distribution. 
It consists of two separate and independent engines under one boiler. 
The rear engine is rigidly attached to the back end of the boiler in 
the usual manner. The front engine is not attached to the boiler, 
but supports it by means of sliding bearings, so that it can move 
freely from side to side under the boiler and pass curves more easily. 
There is a hinged or articulated connection between the engines by 
which the front one is permitted a limited swing in relation to the 
rear one, and it is this feature which gives the name “articulated’ ’ 
to this type of locomotive. The rear engine takes boiler steam di¬ 
rect, the same as a simple engine, and exhausts it from both cylin¬ 
ders into a large pipe or receiver. The front engine takes exhaust 
steam from this receiver, works it in a larger set of cylinders, and 
then exhausts it to the atmosphere through the stack. 

Q. 27.—How do you get the use of both engines when starting a 
train? 

A.—In order that there may be steam in the low pressure cylin¬ 
ders before the high pressure engine has exhausted, on some types 
of the Mallet compound there is a live steam pipe, with a valve in 
the cab, which admits boiler steam to the receiver pipe. Thus the 
use of the front engine is secured in starting a train. In the Amer¬ 
ican Locomotive articulated compounds there is an intercepting 
valve, similar to the one used in the Richmond cross-compound, and 
is placed between the exhaust passage of the rear engine and the 
flexible receiving pipe of the front one. When in simple position, 
this intercepting valve permits the high pressure cylinders of the 
rear engine to exhaust directly to the stack instead of into the re¬ 
ceiver, feeding boiler steam at a reduced pressure into the receiver 
pipe for the low pressure cylinders, without giving any back pressure 
on the high pressure pistons. By this arrangement the power of 
the complete locomotive is increased twenty per cent. In com¬ 
pound position, the intercepting valve shuts off the supply of live 
steam to the receiver pipe and the exhaust steam is forced to the 
low pressure engine. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


267 


Q- 28.—How is the American articulated compound changed 
from compound to simple, and back to compound again? 

A.—When working the locomotive simple, the handle of the 
operating valve in the cab should be placed to point toward the rear. 
Steam is. admitted against the piston which operates the emergency 
exhaust valve and opens it. Exhaust steam from the high 
pressure engine, instead of passing to the low pressure engine, 
passes to the exhaust nozzle. The intercepting valve then moves 
over so that live steam reduced to forty per cent boiler pressure 
passes through the receiver pipe to the low pressure engine. When 
working the locomotive compound, the handle of the operating valve 
should be placed to point forward. This exhausts the steam, holding 
the emergency exhaust valve open; by means of a spring and the 
pressure of the steam exhausted from the rear engine, the emergency 
exhaust valve is closed, and a pressure built up against the inter¬ 
cepting valve, which opens it, so that steam from the rear engine 
goes to the forward one, and at the same movement closes the re¬ 
ducing valve so that the receiver gets no more live steam. 

Q. 29.—When is it necessary to use-the operating valve to change 
the locomotive from compound to simple, or from simple to com¬ 
pound? 

A.—The intercepting valve should automatically go to simple 
position until exhaust steam from the rear engine builds up a re¬ 
ceiver pressure that shifts the valve to compound, when giving the 
engines steam to start. Use the operating valve if it does not do so. 
The engine should be set working simple, when about to stall on a 
grade or if moving less than four miles an hour; when the danger of 
stalling is over, or speed is more than four miles an hour, change to 
compound. Open the starting valve to admit live steam to the re¬ 
ceiver pipe and low pressure engine if there is no intercepting valve 
to furnish live steam to the forward engine. 

Q. 30.—If in starting the locomotive the forward engine does not 
take steam, what is the trouble? 

A.—On account of being dirty the reducing valve may be stuck 
shut or stuck on the stem of the intercepting valve. Should the re¬ 
ducing valve be stuck, take off the head of the dashpot and work the 
valve back and forth to loosen it. OiTthe intercepting valve freely 
just before starting and occasionally during long runs to keep it from 
sticking. 

Q. 31.—Why does the Mallet compound have more power when 
working simple than compound? 

A.—If a starting valve is used to admit live steam to the receiver 
pipe and thence to the low pressure engine, it gives a higher pressure 
to the low pressure cylinders. If an intercepting valve is used the 
open emergency exhaust valve permits exhaust steam from the rear 
engine to go direct to the stack, taking away the back pressure of the 
receiver steam from the high pressure pistons about 30 per cent of 
the boiler pressure, thus adding to the power of the rear engine. The 



268 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


reducing valve when feeding live steam gives about 40 per cent of 
boiler pressure to the low pressure engine instead of the 30 per cent 
it gets from the receiver. The compound operation is about 20 per 
cent less than the power of both engines working simple with this 
added power. 

Q. 32.—What is the duty of the by-pass valves on the sides of the 
low pressure cylinders? Should they be kept clean of gum and grit? 

A.—They are connected to the steam ports at each end of the 
cylinders and open to allow air and steam to pass from one end to the 
other of the cylinder away from the moving piston when the engine 
is drifting. If not kept clean they may stick open; when working 
steam the engine will blow badly, and if they stick shut will cause the 
engine to pound when drifting. 

Q. 33.—In what position should the reverse lever be when the 
steam is shut off and the engine drifting? 

A.—Below three quarters of full gear, in order that the valves will 
have nearly full travel. 

Q. 34.—Why should the power reversing gear of the Mallet com¬ 
pound always have its dashpot cylinder full of oil? 

A.—To avoid the too rapid movement of the reverse gear piston 
and prevent damaging it. 

Q. 35.—In what position should the engines stand to test for blows 
in valves and piston packing? 

A.—The operating or starting valve should be in simple position. 
“Spot” the engine in the proper position and each engine should be 
tested for blows the same as for a simple engine. 

Q. 36.—What power is used with Ragonnet or Baldwin power re¬ 
verse gear? 

A.—Air pressure. 

Q. 37.—Can and should steam pressure be used? 

A.—It can, but steam should never be used except in an emer¬ 
gency when air is not available. 

Q. 38.—What precaution should be taken regarding steam check 
and throttle? 

A.—They should be tight and check working properly to prevent 
the steam from entering main reservoir. Should this occur the steam 
would burn out the gaskets in the air brake equipment; moisture 
would accumulate which would result in freezing and bursting the 
equipment, besides being dangerous. 

Q. 39.—What would cause the gear to fail to hold links in in¬ 
tended cut-off, and allow them to raise and lower without operating 
valve in the cab being changed? 

A.—This would be caused by leaks in main valve and piston 
packing. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


269 


LUBRICATION. 

Q. 1.—What produces friction, and what is the result of excessive 
friction? 

A.—Friction, as considered in locomotive service, is the rubbing 
together of any two surfaces, when held in contact by pressure. The 
result is heat, and the destruction of the journal and its bearing, or 
the roughening of the sliding surfaces. 

Q. 2.—What is lubrication and its object? 

A.—The interposing of a thin layer of lubricant so that the sur¬ 
faces do not actually touch each other, the oily surface of one part 
sliding with less heat against the oily surface of the other. 

Q. 3.—What examinations should be made by the engineer to 
insure successful lubrication? 

A.—Examine so as to know that the oil holes are open, cups filled 
and in proper working order, that packing in cellars is put in evenly 
and in contact with the journal. Also see that grease cups are 
filled, and that grease cellars contain enough grease for the next trip. 
The waste on top of driving or truck boxes should also be in proper 
shape. 

Q. 4.—How should feeders of all oil cups be adjusted? 

A.—They should be adjusted according to the work, oil should be 
fed regularly to give perfect lubrication, and as small a quantity as 
possible for perfect lubrication used. 

Q. 5.—Why is it bad practice to keep engine oil close to boiler in 
warm weather? 

A.—It gets too hot and will flow off the bearings too rapidly, a hot 
bearing very often being the result. 

Q. 6.—In what manner would you care for a hot bearing if dis¬ 
covered on the road? 

A.—Take as much time as possible in cooling the bearing, care¬ 
fully lubricate all moving parts and be sure that they move freely 
before proceeding. 

Q. 7.—What kind of oil should be used on hot bearings? 

A.—If too hot to stand engine oil use valve oil while bearing is 
warm enough to make it flow. To avoid reheating, the valve oil must 
be removed as soon as the bearing cools. 

Q. 8.—At completion of trip what is necessary? 

A.—Shut off the lubricator and all bottom feed oil cups, feel of 
all bearings and pins and report any that are running hot. 

Q. 9.—How would you determine what boxes to report examined? 
Why not report all boxes examined? 

A.—Placing the hand on driving box, on hub of engine truck wheel 
and on top of tender truck boxes nearest the brass, shows which are 
too hot. Unless the temperature was above running heat would not 
report them examined. 

Q. 10.—Why is it bad practice to disturb the packing on top of 
driving and engine truck boxes with spout of oil can when oiling 
engine? 



270 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—It stirs up the dirt, cinders and sand and is liable to get them 
down on the bearings, as well as feed the oil away too quickly. This 
packing is placed on top of boxes to help keep the dirt and dust out 
of oil holes, and to aid in gradual lubrication from the top. 

Q. 11.—How do you adjust grease cups as applied to rods? 

A.—By screwing down the compression plug until a slight resist¬ 
ance from the grease is felt. When grease shows between brass and 
pin, then stop. This should be sufficient over the division. 

Q. 12.—Is it usual for pins to run warm when using grease? 

A.—Yes. The grease must melt and become practically an oil in 
order to lubricate freely. 

Q. 13.—What effect does too much pressure produce? 

A.—It wastes the grease and increases the friction until the sur¬ 
plus amount is worked out so that the bearing can run free on its 
journal. 

Q. 14.—Is it necessary to use oil with grease on crank pins? 

A.—No. 

Q. 15.—When an engine is equipped with Elvin driving box lubri¬ 
cator, how can you tell whether a sufficient amount of lubricant is in 
the grease receptacle? 

A.—By the indicator wire fastened to the bottom of the grease 
cellar, which shows the amount of grease left in the cellar. 

Q. 16.—Why should engine oil not be used on valves and cylin¬ 
ders? 

A.—Because it will vaporize and become like a gas which has no 
lubricating qualities at such.a high temperature as that of the steam. 

Q. 17.—At what temperature does engine oil lose its lubricating 
qualities? At what temperature for valve oil? 

A.—Either oil loses its lubricating qualities before reaching its 
flash point. The flash point of engine oil is from 250 to 350 degrees F., 
that of valve oil from 500 to 600 degrees F., depending on the quality 
of the oil. Steam at 120 pounds has a temperature of about 350 de¬ 
grees F., which is above the flash test of engine oil; steam at 235 
pounds has a temperature of about 431 degrees F., which is much 
below the flash test of valve oil. Where superheated steam is used 
and the temperature is 600 degrees F. and more, a higher grade of 
valve oil with a higher flash test is required. 

Q. 18.—How and by what means are valves, cylinders and the 
steam end of air pumps lubricated? 

A.—By hydro-static lubricator with sight feed. 

Q. 19.—What is the principle on which a lubricator operates? 
How does the oil get from the cup to the steam chest? 

A.—Steam being admitted to the condenser condenses, and the 
water of condensation flows through the water pipe, when the water 
valve is open, to the bottom of the reservoir; the oil being lighter than 
the water remains on top and at such a height that it can flow down¬ 
ward through the oil tubes to the regulating feed valves; when the 
feed valves are open, the oil passes out of the feed nozzles in the form 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


271 


of drops, flowing upward through the sight feed glasses, where it is 
met by a small current of steam from the condenser, through the 
equalizing pipes, which forces the oil through the choke plugs into the 
oil pipes and thence into the steam chests. 

Q. 20.—How should the lubricator be filled? 

A.—Close all valves connected with the lubricator, remove filling 
plug, open the drain cock and draw off the water only. Then close 
drain plug. Fill the oil tank in the regular way, taking care not to 
overflow it; replace filling plug. If there is not enough oil to fill the 
lubricator water may be used, as the lubricator will begin feeding 
sooner when full. 

Q. 21.—After filling lubricator, what should be done? 

A.—Open wide the steam throttle to the lubricator, then care¬ 
fully open water valves. Open feeds as required but not until sure 
the chamber in the glasses is filled with water. 

Q. 22.—How long before leaving terminal should the feed valves 
be opened? Why? 

A.—About fifteen minutes. This should be sufficient time to 
allow oil to feed through the oil pipe to the steam chests. 

Q. 23.—How many drops should be fed per minute? 

A.—From one to seven drops per minute for cylinders, depending 
upon conditions, timed by the watch. Large cylinders require more 
oil than smaller ones. About one drop per minute should be fed to 
the air pump. 

Q. 24.—If lubricator feeds regularly when working steam and too 
rapidly after shutting off, what is the trouble? 

A.—This is due to too large an opening in the choke plug at the 
lubricator or through the steam valves at the steam chest. Reduce 
to proper size by applying new chokes or valves. 

Q. 25.—When valves appear dry while using steam and the lubri¬ 
cator is working all right, what would you do to relieve these condi¬ 
tions? 

A.—Ease off on the throttle a few seconds to reduce steam chest 
pressure and drop the reverse lever a few notches, giving the valve a 
longer travel. Oil held in the pipes will then flow down. 


GENERAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON ELECTRIC 
HEADLIGHTS. 

Q. 1.—Describe the passage of the current through the lamp and 
tell how arc light is formed. 

A.—The current flowing from the dynamo is called the positive 
current and enters the lamp at the binding post; thence through a 
No. 8 insulated copper wire to the bracket; thence through connec¬ 
tions to carbon; then down through the copper electrode and holder 
to a No. 8 insulated copper wire, through the solenoid; then to the 
binding post and back to the dynamo. 



272 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


As soon as current passes through the solenoid, it attracts the 
armature which in turn is connected with the levers which clutch the 
carbon and separate it from the point of the copper electrode. The 
current jumping this space, from the carbon to the electrode, creates 
the light, the distance between the points being regulated by current 
flowing through the solenoid. A solenoid is a coil of wires and when 
energized by a current flowing through them, acts as a magnet. 

Q. 2.—Why should sandpaper be used to smooth commutator in¬ 
stead of emery cloth? 

A.—Sand under these conditions is a non-conductor while emery 
is a conductor of the electric current, and should a piece of the emery 
lodge between the bars of the commutator, it would result in a short 
circuit. Emery will embed in the copper and cut the brushes, while 
sand will not do so. 

Q. 3.—State how you would go about to focus a lamp? 

A.—(1) Adjust back of reflector so front edge will be parallel with 
front edge of case. 

(2) Adjust lamp to have point of copper as near center of reflector 
as possible. 

(3) Have carbon as near center of chimney hole in reflector as 
possible. 

(4) Have locomotives on straight track and move lamp until you 
get best results on track. The light should be reflected in parallel 
rays and in as small a space as possible. 

To lower light on track, raise lamp. 

To raise light on track, lower lamp. 

Q. 4.—If the light throws shadows upon the track, is it properly 
focused? 

A.—No. 

Q. 5.—If the light is properly focused, that is, if the rays are leav¬ 
ing the reflector in parallel lines, but the light does not strike the 
center of the track, what should be done? 

A.—Shift entire case on baseboard. 

Q. 6.—What can you do to insure a good and unfailing light for 
the entire trip? 

A.—The entire equipment should be carefully inspected before 
starting on each trip to know that there are no wires with insulation 
chafed or worn off; see that all screws and connections are tight; that 
commutator is clean, and brushes set in holder in the correct way. 
Carbon of sufficient length to complete the trip should be in the lamp, 
the copper electrode cleaned and oil in both bearings. 

Q. 7.—Why would you not fill the main oil cellar full of oil? 

A.—It will be thrown out of the ends of the cellar by the motion 
of the engine and might ruin the armature. 

Q. 8.—What is the most vital part of the dynamo? 

A.—The commutator. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


273 


Q. 9.—What care and attention should be given the commutator? 

A.—The brushes should be examined as to bearing, surface and 
tension, the mica between the copper strips should always be a 
trifle below the surface, and the commutator clean. 

Q. 10.—How should you clean the commutator, and when? 

A.—The commutator should be cleaned each trip with a piece 
of damp waste not wet, rubbing endwise so as to keep the creases 
clean where mica is filed out. Wipe dry. 

Q. 11.—What kind of a bearing should the brush have on the 
commutator? 

A.—They should fit perfectly on the commutator; with bearings 
covering no less than two, nor more than three of the commutator bars. 

Q. 12.—How are the brushes fitted? 

A.—Take a piece of fine O sandpaper and introduce between 
the brush and commutator and draw in the direction of the rotation 
of commutator until the brush fits perfectly. Do not saw sandpaper 
back and forth; pull it in one direction only. 

Q. 13.—Is it advisable to ever try to fit a brush up with a file or 
knife? 

A.—It is not. 

Q. 14.—Why is it important to clean the scale off the point of 
the copper electrode each trip? 

A.—The current will not pass through this scale, and to allow 
the point of the carbon and the electrode to touch to form a circuit, 
it must be removed. 

Q. 15.—How should the copper electrode be trimmed at the point? 

A.—Should be trimmed with a piece of emery cloth to a rounding 
point having about 34 inch surface. 

Q. 16.—How far should the copper electrode project above the 
holder? 

A.—One inch. 

Q. 17.—Should the electrode be raised up to 134 inches, what 
might happen? 

A.—So much heat would be generated on the clutch that it would 
result in a lamp failure. 

Q. 18.—If the dashpot should be found stuck, would you put oil 
in it? 

A.—Cut the dirt from out of the pot and off the plunger with 
coal oil, wiping off all oil after cleaning as it would cause the plunger 
to collect dirt and stick. 

Q. 19.—If one carbon of lamp should “jig or pound,” what can 
be done to stop it? 

A.—This is caused by the iron armature being too far out of the 
solenoid, or speed too slow. 

Q. 20.—Does the pounding of the lamp occur with the old series 
wound machines or with the new compound wound machines? 

A.—Occurs more with the old series wound as the compound 
winding gives a steadier voltage. 



274 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 21.—If the copper electrode were fusing, how would you know 
it? , 

A.—The rapid burning of the copper would change the color of 
the light to green, instead of a shaft of white light. < 

Q. 22.—What should be done when a green light is seen? 

A.—Steam should be throttled at once, then opened slowly until 
a white light reappears. 

Q. 23.—What is the cause of the copper electrode fusing? 

A.—May be caused by speed of dynamo being too high or by 
the wires from dynamo to lamp being connected up wrong so that 
the positive current enters the copper electrode instead of the top 
carbon. 

Q. 24.—What arrangements have been made so that you can not 
connect your wires wrong? 

A.—The positive binding post both at the dynamo and lamp 
have been provided with a much larger hole to receive the wire than 
has been made in the negative binding post. The ends of the positive 
wire should always be bent or doubled back so they will just enter 
the receptacle in the positive binding posts, but can not be con¬ 
nected to the negative binding post. 

Q. 25.—Should the copper electrode and holder become fused 
until no longer serviceable out on the road, what would you do? 

A.—Remove the damaged holder from the lamp. Fasten a bolt 
or carbon in the bracket of the lamp with the end in the center of 
reflector and not touching the base of reflector or lamp. 


AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS—THIRD YEAR* 

AIR PUMP 

Q. 1.—Explain how an air pump should be started and run on 
the road. 

A.—It should be started slowly to permit the condensation to be 
drained off. The lubricator should be started carefully, and the 
pump worked slowly until about 40 pounds have been accumulated 
in the main reservoir to cushion the steam and air piston of the pump. 
Then the throttle should be opened wider, giving a speed of about 
130 or 140 single strokes per minute. The amount of work being 
done really governs the speed of the pump. 

Q. 2.—How should the steam end of the pump be oiled? 

A.—By the sight feed lubricator, with a good quality of valve 
oil, and at the rate of about one drop per minute. This amount 
will vary with the condition of .the pump and the work being done. 


*See questions and answers on “ET” No. 6. Equipment 





ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


275 


Q. 3.—How should air end of a pump be oiled, and what lubricant 
should be used? 

A.—High grade valve oil, containing good lubricating qualities 
and no sediment should be used. A good swab on the piston rod 
will help out a great deal. Oil should be used in the air cylinder of 
the pump sparingly but continuously, and it should be introduced 
on the down stroke, when pump is running slowly, through the little 
cup provided for the purpose, and not through the air suction valves. 
An automatic oil cup, such as has recently come into practice, is 
preferable to hand oiling. 

Q. 4.—When first admitting steam to the 93^-inch pump, in what 
direction does the main valve move? 

A.—If the main piston is at the bottom of the cylinder, as it 
usually is after steam has been shut off and gravity controls it, the 
main valve will move to the position to the right. 

Q. 5.—With the main valve to the right, which end of the cylinder 
will receive steam? • 

A.—The bottom, or lower end. 

Q. 6.—When the main piston completes its up stroke, explain 
how its motion is reversed so as to make the downward stroke. 

A.—When the main piston reaches and is nearly at the top of 
its stroke, the reversing plate catches the shoulder on the reversing 
valve rod, moving the reversing rod and valve to their upper posi¬ 
tions, where steam is admitted behind the large head of the main 
valve, forcing this main valve over to the left, carrying with it the 
slide valve which admits steam to the top end of the cylinder and 
exhausts it from the bottom end, thereby reversing the stroke of 
the pump. 

Q. 7.—Explain the operation of the air end of the 93^-inch air 
pump on an up stroke and on a down stroke. 

A.—The air piston is directly connected with the steam piston, 
and any movement of the steam piston will consequently be trans¬ 
mitted directly to the air piston. When the steam piston moves up, 
the air piston will, of course, go with it, thus leaving an empty space 
or a vacuum in the lower end of the air cylinder, underneath the air 
piston. Atmospheric air rushes through the air inlet, raising the 
lower receiving valve, and filling the bottom end of the cylinder with 
atmospheric pressure. At the same time the air above the air piston 
will be compressed. The pressure thus formed holds the upper 
receiving valve to its seat, and when a little greater than the air in 
the main reservoir, the upper discharge valve will lift and allow the 
compressed air to flow into the main reservoir. When the piston 
reaches the top of the stroke its motion is reversed, and on the down 
stroke the vacuum in the upper end of the air cylinder is supplied 
by atmospheric pressure passing through the upper receiving valve. 
The main reservoir pressure is held by the upper discharge valve, 
and the air being compressed in the bottom of the cylinder holds 
the bottom receiving valve to its seat, and when compressed 



276 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


sufficiently, forces the lower discharge valve open and passes to the 
reservoir. 

Q. 8.—Give some of the causes of the pump running hot. 

A.—First, air cylinder packing rings leaking. Second, discharge 
valves stuck closed or the discharge passages so obstructed that the 
pump is working against high air pressure continually. Third, poor 
lubrication. Fourth, high speed. Fifth, discharge or receiving air 
valves leaking. Sixth, air piston rod packing leaking. 

Q. 9.—If the pump runs hot while on the road, how would you 
proceed to cool it? 

A.—First, reduce the speed of the pump, and look for leaks in 
the train line. Second, make sure that the packing around the piston 
rod is not too tight or in bad condition. Third, see that the main 
reservoir is properly drained. If the pump still runs hot it should be 
reported at the end of the trip. 

Q. 10.—If the pump stops, -can you tell if the trouble Is in the 
pump or in the governor? 

A.—Yes. It may be tested by opening the drajp cock in the steam 
passage at the pump, and noting whether there is a free flow of 
steam; if so, there is a free passage through the governor and the 
trouble is not there. 

Q. 11.—State the common causes for the pump stopping. 

A.—There are several reasons. First, it may be stopped by the 
governor being out of order. Second, the valves may be dry and need 
lubrication. Third, nuts may be loose or broken on the piston rod 
or one of the pistons pulled off. Fourth, the reversing valve rod may 
be broken or bent, or the reversing plate may be loose, or the shoulder 
on the reversing valve rod or the reversing plate may be so badly 
worn as not to catch and perform their proper functions. Fifth, 
nuts holding the main valve piston may be loose or broken off. 
Sixth, excessive blow past the packing rings of the main valve. 

Q. 12.—Should a pump make a much quicker down stroke than 
up, what effect does it indicate? 

A.—An upper discharge air valve leaking, a lower receiving air 
valve stuck to its seat or broken. 

Q. 13.—Should it make a much quicker up stroke, what defect 
does it indicate? 

A.—The lower discharge valve leaking badly, or the upper re¬ 
ceiving valve is probably broken, or stuck to its seat. 

Q. 14.—Should an engineman observe the workings of a pump 
on the road, and report repairs needed, and do you consider yourself 
competent? 

A._Yes. 

PUMP GOVERNOR. 

Q. 1.—What is the duty of the pump governor? 

A.—To properly regulate the air pressure in the main reservoir. 

Q. 2.—Explain how the governor operates? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


277 


A.—The governor is an automatic arrangement for admitting 
and closing off steam to the air pump, and is actuated by air pres¬ 
sure. The steam valve, which shuts off and opens up the steam 
passageway to the pump, is controlled by an air piston and spring. 
When air pressure is admitted above the piston, it forces the piston 
down, closing off the steam to the pump. When the air pressure is 
exhausted from above the piston, the spring forces the piston up 
and allows steam pressure to pass to the pump. The admission and 
exhaust of the air to this piston is controlled by a diaphragm and 
spring. The air from the main reservoir enters the body of the 
governor underneath the diaphragm, which is held by a spring of 
given tension, depending on the pressure desired in the main reser¬ 
voir. While the main reservoir pressure is less than the pressure 
the governor is set for, this diaphragm is held down by the spring, 
and the air can pass no farther than a small pin valve attached to it, 
but when the main reservoir pressure overcomes the tension of the 
spring, it raises the diaphragm, unseats the pin valve, and allows the 
air to flow to the top of the air piston, shutting off the pump. Dur¬ 
ing the time the air is acting on this piston, some of it escapes through 
a leakage port or vent hole, which is always open. When the main 
reservoir pressure drops below that to which the spring is adjusted, 
the spring forces the diaphragm down, seating the pin valve and al¬ 
lowing the air on top of the piston to escape to the atmosphere 
through the small vent port. 

Q. 3.—By what air pressure is the governor operated when using 
the D-8 brake valve? When using the G-6 valve? When using the 
New York brake valve? 

A.—With the D-8 valve, by train line pressure. With the F-6 
or G-6 valve, by the main reservoir pressure. New York, by the 
train line. 

Q. 4.—By what pressure is the duplex governor operated in high 
speed service? By what pressure in ordinary service? 

A.—The governor tops are adjusted for 90 and 110 pounds, and 
the two feed valves are set for 70 and 90 pounds. To operate the 
low, or ordinary, pressure feature, the handle of the reversing cock 
is turned to the left; this cuts out the 110-pound governor and 
90-pound feed valve and renders operative the 90-pound governor 
and 70-pound feed valve. By reversing the position of the revers¬ 
ing cock handle, the low pressure parts are cut out and the high 
pressure parts cut in; but the small stop cock in the governor pipe 
must also be closed. 

Q. 5.—What is the object of the relief port in the governor? 
Why should it be kept open? 

A.—If this port is not kept open, the air pressure which holds the 
piston down can not escape when the diaphragm valve closes, and, 
consequently, the governor will not operate the pump properly. 



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Q. 6.—If the pin valve leaks, what effect will it have on the pump? 

A.—It will allow a certain amount of air pressure to flow in on 
top of the air piston. If the leak is greater than the escape from 
the little leakage port, the under pressure will accumulate and cause 
the governor to slow down or completely stop the pump. 

Q. 7.—How can you detect leaks in the governor? 

A.—By disconnecting the upper from the lower section of the 
governor, then attaching the air pressure connection, turn the air 
pressure under the diaphragm. If it rises with the proper pressure 
and opens the port, the escape of air will be readily noticed. Should 
it not be raised, or the port be closed by dirt, it would be in that 
section; this will also show if the diaphragm leaks. I would then 
inspect the lower section. 

Q. 8.—Where would you look for the cause if the governor al¬ 
lowed the pump to raise the pressure too high? 

A.—The main reservoir pressure may not reach the governor, 
due to the stoppage in the pipe or in the union at the governor. 
This may also be due to the space on top of the diaphragm being 
filled with dirt. If the air is getting to the diaphragm valve, and is 
so indicated by the blow at the leakage port, the trouble must then 
be due to the drip pipe being stopped up or frozen, thereby prevent¬ 
ing the air and steam, which leak in under the air piston, from es¬ 
caping. 

Q. 9.—Where, if the air pump stopped when the pressure was 
too low? 

A.—If the pump were not getting steam it would probably be 
due to the pin valve being gummed up or dirt under it; the detec¬ 
tor hole or leakage port in the side of the governor would then blow. 
Once in a great while the piston and steam valve have been known 
to stick closed, but very rarely. 


ENGINEERS’ BRAKE AND EQUALIZING DISCHARGE 

VALVE. 

Q. 1.—Name the different positions of the brake valve and trace 
the flow of air through it in each position. 

A.—Full release, running position, lap, service application, and 
emergency application. In full release there is a large direct com¬ 
munication between the main reservoir and the train pipe. In 
running position the air passes from the main reservoir indirectly 
to the train pipe, that is, through the ports and passages of the 
excess pressure valve or through the feed valve, as the case may be. 
In lap position all ports-are closed. In service application, first the 
air from the equalizing discharge reservoir and cavity “D” escapes 
to the atmosphere, then, when the equalizing discharge piston rises, 
the air from the train pipe escapes to the atmosphere through the 



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279 


train line exhaust elbow. In emergency position a large direct open¬ 
ing is made between the train pipe and the atmosphere. 

Q. 2.—Where does the main reservoir pressure begin and end? 
Where does the train pipe pressure begin and end? 

A.—The main reservoir pressure begins at the pump discharge 
pipe and ends at the connection to the brake valve. The train pipe 
pressure begins at the brake valve and extends to the rear cock on 
the train, with branches to the triple valve under each car, the ten¬ 
der, and the engine. 

Q. 3.—Explain the effect of a cut rotary valve or seat. 

A.—A leaky rotary valve or seat usually causes a loss of excess 
pressure in running position and releases the brakes in lap position. 

Q. 4.—With the handle of the brake valve in either running or 
holding position, what defect will cause the black hand to equalize 
with the red hand? 

A.—A leaky rotary valve, a lower body gasket, feed valve, or feed 
valve gasket. 

Q. 5.—How do you regulate the excess pressure with each form 
of brake valve? How do you clean the valves? 

A.—With the 1889 (D-8) brake valve, by the excess pressure 
spring; with the later forms of brake valves, by the spring in the 
feed valve attachment. Clean the valves and their seats by waste 
or friction from a soft piece of wood—never oil them when replacing. 

Q. 6.—How do you apply and release the automatic brake? 

A.—The automatic brake is applied by reducing the train pipe 
pressure below that in the auxiliary; it is released by increasing the 
train pipe pressure above that in the auxiliary. The brake valve is 
the valve to properly perform these functions, when everything is 
in working order. 

Q. 7.—How can you tell which defect caused the hands to equal¬ 
ize? 

A.—Reduce the brake pipe pressure below the adjustment of the 
feed valve, close the cut-out cock under the brake valve. If there 
is a leak at the service exhaust port, the rotary valve will be leaking. 
If there be no discharge, and the black hand rise, the body gasket is 
at fault. If the black hand remains stationary, the trouble will be 
found in the feed valve or its case gasket. 

Q. 8.—What is the purpose of the equalizing reservoir, and what 
effect would a leak from this reservoir have? 

A.—The purpose of the equalizing reservoir is to supply a larger 
volume of air above the equalizing piston, to enable the engineer 
to make a graduated reduction of the pressure above the piston. 
Leakage from this reservoir would be liable to cause the brakes to 
set when the brake valve is in lap position. 

Q. 9.—If the pipe connecting the brake valve to the equalizing 
reservoir should break, what should be done? 

A.—The pipe at the brake valve should be plugged, also the 
service exhaust port. Wishing to make a service application, move 



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the handle carefully towards emergency position until the desired 
reduction is made, and then move back to lap very carefully. 

Q. 10.—What can be learned by noticing the discharge of air 
from the train pipe exhaust? 

A.—The length of the train line, that is, approximately the num¬ 
ber of cars of air. By watching this exhaust it can also be de¬ 
termined if, in testing brakes, one defective triple sets quick action; 
third, in releasing brakes it can be told if you only have the lone 
engine. 

Q. 11.—What is the duty of the small reservoir connected to the 
brake valve? If the pipe leading to this reservoir is leaking badly 
or broken off, what will you do? 

A.—It is for the purpose of enlarging chamber “D” without 
making a great, bulky brake valve in the cab. Plug up this pipe 
or put in a blind gasket, also plug the train line exhaust nipple and 
use emergency position carefully, as with the old three-way cock. 

Q. 12.—Where is the first air taken from in making a service stop? 
Where does it blow out? Where next? 

A.—From chamber “D” and the equalizing reservoir. It blows 
out of the preliminary exhaust. Next, the train pipe pressure es¬ 
capes from the train line exhaust nipple. 

Q. 13.—Does air ever blow out of the train pipe exhaust when 
releasing the brake? Why? 

A.—Yes, with a lone engine or very short train, in which case the 
train line charges more rapidly than chamber “D” and the equaliz¬ 
ing reservoir, thus causing piston 17 to rise. 

Q. 14.—What pressures do the red hand and black hand of the 
gauge indicate? 

A.—Red hand—main reservoir; black hand—chamber “D” pres¬ 
sure. 

Q. 15.—Does the black hand of the gauge also show the train 
pipe pressure at all times? 

A.—No, only when chamber “D” and the train line are connected, 
as in full release and running position. On lap or in service positions, 
at the instant the train line exhaust starts or stops, they are also 
practically equal. 

Q. 16.—What will be the result of leaving the handle of the brake 
valve in full release position too long, and then moving to running 
position? 

A.—Brakes are likely to drag, due to temporarily shutting off all 
supply of air, to overcome the leaks. 

Q. 17.—Following a straight air application, if the brake fails to 
release with the straight air valve in release position, where would 
you look for the trouble and what may be done to release the brake? 

A.—This would indicate that the double-throw clutch valve was 
leaking and that the feed valve wanted cleaning. To release the 
brake, move the automatic brake valve to release and quickly re¬ 
turn to running position. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


281 


Q. 18.—How is the train pipe pressure regulated with each type 
of brake valve? 

A.—By the governor with the 1889 (D-8) brake valve; by the feed 
valve attachment with all later types of brake valves. 

Q. 19.—In making a service application, what should the first 
reduction be? 

A.—From 5 to 8 pounds, depending upon the length of the train. 

Q. 20.—What reduction from 70 pounds train pipe pressure will 
fully apply the brake? Why? 

A.—About 20 pounds; because that amount from the auxiliary 
reservoirs will equalize with the pressure in the brake cylinders at 
about 50 pounds. 


THE TRIPLE VALVE. 

Q. 1.—What is the duty of the triple valve? 

A.—The duty of the triple valve is, first, to charge the auxiliary 
reservoir; second, to set the brakes by allowing auxiliary pressure 
to flow to the brake cylinder, and, third, to release the brakes by al¬ 
lowing the pressure in the cylinder to escape to the atmosphere. 

Q. 2.—Why is the word ‘Triple” used to designate this valve? 

A.—Because it performs the three functions mentioned. 

Q. 2 (a).—By what is it connected to the brake valve? 

A.—By the branch pipe and the train line with hose. 

Q. 3.—Explain the duty of the triple piston, the slide valve, and 
the graduating valve. 

A.—The duty of the triple valve piston is, by variation of pres¬ 
sures on its two sides, to move the slide valve on its seat to the ap¬ 
plication, graduating, and release position, and to open and close 
the feed groove in the piston bushing. The function of the slide 
valve is, by its movement due to the triple valve piston, to make 
connection between the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder, ap¬ 
plying the brake, and to make connections between the brake cylin¬ 
der and the atmosphere, releasing the brake. The function of the 
graduating valve is, from its movement given by the triple piston, 
to admit pressure gradually from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake 
cylinder in response to reductions made in the train pipe pressure. 

Q. 4.—How many kinds of triple valves are in use? 

A.—Two, the plain type and the quick action type, or according 
to the fact. 

Q. 5.—Describe how each kind operates. 

A.—With the quick action type, a sudden reduction of pressure 
in the train pipe will cause the triple piston and its parts to be 
moved to quick action application position, which first throws into 
operation the emergency feature of the triple, admitting train line 
pressure to the brake cylinder, after which auxiliary reservoir pres¬ 
sure is permitted to pass to the brake cylinder, and consequently a 



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higher pressure is obtained than in a full service application of the 
brake. With the plain type, any sudden reduction merely moves 
the parts to their extreme position, but allows no other than auxiliary 
reservoir pressure to flow to the brake cylinder. 

Q. 6.—Explain where the air comes from that enters the brake 
cylinder in a service application. In an emergency application. 
With each kind of triple valve. 

A.—In service application with either type of triple valve the 
air that enters the brake cylinder comes from the auxiliary reservoir; 
with the quick action triple only does part of the train pipe air 
first enter the brake cylinder quickly, later followed by the auxiliary 
pressure. 

Q. 7.—How do you cut out a triple valve so its brake will not 
operate? 

A.—The old style plain triple, by turning the handle down 
obliquely to about 45 degrees. With the later style and all quick 
action triples, by closing the stop cock in the branch pipe. Then 
bleed the auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. 8.—If a triple valve does not apply the brake at the proper 
time, where will you look for the trouble? 

A.—If the auxiliary is charged, the triple valve is probably 
frozen or stuck or the packing ring worn badly, or the brake cylinder 
itself leaking badly. If the auxiliary has not charged, the feed 
groove may be closed or the reservoir itself be leaking badly. 

Q. 9.—If the brake will not release, where will you look for the 
trouble? 

A.—Retainer turned up or its pipe stopped up; triple piston 
packing ring worn; triple strainer stopped up or triple frozen. 

Q. 10.—Name the common defects of the triple valve and explain 
how you locate them. 

A.—Triple valve frozen or stuck, packing ring leaking, etc., 
located as above. Emergency gasket leaking—cut the car out 
underneath and the brake will set quick action. Slide valve dirty 
or leaking—blows through the exhaust or retainer but will not cause 
emergency as last stated. Brake fails to release on long train— 
usually the piston packing ring or cylinder bushing worn badly. 


NEW YORK AIR BRAKE—THE DUPLEX 
AIR PUMP. 

Q. 1.—Describe the New York Duplex Air Pump and its operation 
in the steam end. 

A.—It has four cylinders—two steam and two air; one air cylinder 
is double the area of any one of the other three, which are all the 
same size. The steam end is duplex, and the piston in each steam 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


283 


cylinder operates the slide valve which controls the flow of steam 
from the boiler into the opposite steam cylinder and out to the 
atmosphere. This is done by locating the slide valve for the right 
cylinder under the left cylinder, and for the left cylinder under the 
right one, and cross the steam ports from the left valve to the right 
cylinder and from the right valve to the left cylinder. The valves 
are D slide valves which admit steam to the cylinder by the outside 
edge of the valve and exhaust through a cavity in the center. The 
seat has three ports, two steam with the exhaust port between them. 

A reversing valve rod is attached to the steam valve and extends 
into the steam cylinder; the main piston rod is drilled to clear this 
valve rod within it and a plate is bolted on to the steam piston in 
such a manner as to strike a shoulder on the valve rod just before 
the stroke of the piston in either direction is completed, changing 
the steam valve to its opposite position in the steam chest. Both 
steam valves being down, when steam is turned on, the right piston 
makes a stroke up and at the completion.of the stroke changes its 
steam valve, causing the left piston to make a stroke up, changing 
its steam valve at the completion of the stroke, and causing the right 
piston to move down, etc. The steam cylinders are the two bottom 
cylinders. 

Q. 2.—Describe the operation of the air end. 

A.—The large piston compresses air into the smaller cylinder and 
then the latter compresses it into the main reservoir. 

Q. 3.—Is this a compound pump in both steam and air ends, or 
in the air end only? 

A.—Only in the air end. 

Q. 4.—What defects in the steam, end will stop the pump? How 
do you locate them? 

A.—Chiefly the reversing apparatus—the reversing plates and 
rods. Would investigate until the trouble was found, bearing in 
mind the main valve for one cylinder regulates the steam in the other. 

Q. 5.—What defects in the air end will stop the pump? How do 
you locate them? 

A.—Generally broken piston rods or loose nuts. Broken or 
defective valves cause the pump to go ‘flame” but seldom stop the 
pump unless broken parts get into the cylinder. Remove the top 
heads to get at the air cylinders and examine the valves through 
their caps. 

Q. 6.—Explain how you will locate a blow of steam by the piston 
or main steam valves. 

A.—It is difficult to distinguish between leaky packing rings, 
leaky slide valves and worn cylinder. r rhese parts should be removed 
and examined carefully when there is a bad blow. 

Q. 7.—What is the cause of the pump not exhausting square or . 
working lame? 

A.—Any one or more of the air valves stuck or broken or if they 
have much different “lift.” 



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Q. 8.—What is the effect of leaky piston rod packing in the high 
pressure air cylinder? 

A.—Any defective or leakage in the smaller or high pressure 
cylinder is more serious than in the low pressure cylinder-because the 
pressure in the former is so much higher that the consequent loss is 
greater. This loss of compressed air to the atmosphere will cause 
the pump to run faster in order to maintain the same pressure. 

Q. 9.—What is the effect of leaky piston rod packing in the steam 
cylinders? 

A.—A waste of steam, obstructing the vision in the winter and 
causes the piston rods to cut and groove. 

Q. 10.—Explain how you would locate a defective air valve. 

A.—The general rule is this: The piston jumps toward a leaky 
or broken receiving valve and away from a broken or leaky discharge 
valve; also in the latter case the pump heats up more, as the com¬ 
pressed air is ‘ ‘churned,” that is, pumped over and over again. Air 
blowing out of the low pressure receiving valves is readily detected. 

Q. 11.—How should the air cylinders be oiled? The steam 
cylinders? 

A.—In the air cylinders use good valve oil very sparingly. 
Always keep good, well oiled swabs on the piston rods, as it has been 
proven by many careful engineers that with these practically no oil 
need be put into the air cylinders. Valve oil in the steam cylinders and 
lubrication started directly after the pump has started. Remember the 
first steam admitted to a cold pump condenses and washes the sur¬ 
faces clean of oil; hence oil should be supplied immediately thereafter. 

Q. 12.—Which air cylinder requires the most oil? 

A.—The smaller or high pressure cylinder, on account of the 
higher temperature. 

Q. 13.—Explain the operation of the automatic oil cup used on 
the air cylinders. 

A.—With the oil cup filled, the pump working and the stroke of 
the piston upward, air is forced up through a small passage in the 
center of the oil cup body and cap, down inside the extended cap 
nut sleeve, through the oil and forms a pressure thereon. When the 
piston is on its downward stroke, and there is a partial vacuum in 
the air cylinder, the air pressure formed on top of the oil in this cup 
forces the oil up inside the sleeve of the cap nut to the feed port and 
a small quantity of oil is then taken down through this port and 
sprayed into the air cylinders on each down stroke. 


“LT” EQUIPMENT. 

Q. 1.—What are the duties of the automatic control valve? 

A.—The automatic control valve is designed to admit and exhaust 
air to and from all the brake cylinders on the locomotive and tender 
during an automatic application of the brakes, and to automatically 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


285 


maintain the desired brake cylinder pressure regardless of piston 
travel or leakage from the brake cylinders or their connections. 

Q. 2.—Where would you look for the trouble if the locomotive 
brakes fail to apply or leak off after a service application is made? 

A.—A leak in the control reservoir pipe or its connections or in 
the control cylinder cap gasket will cause this trouble, or the spring 
in the straight air brake valve may be weak or broken, permitting 
the handle of the valve to remain in the automatic release position. 

Q. 3.—What should be done if the brake cylinder pipe breaks 
between the double chamber reservoir and the double check valves? 

A.—Close the cut-out cock in the main reservoir supply pipe. 
If this occurs, while train is in motion and brake applied, the loss 
of main reservoir pressure can be prevented by moving the handle 
of the straight air brake valve to the automatic release position. 

Q. 4.—What should be done if the control valve release pipe 
breaks? 

A.—If this pipe breaks, the holding feature would be lost. To 
hold the locomotive brakes applied when releasing train brakes, use 
the straight air brake valve. 

Q. 5.—What should be done if the brake pipe cross-over pipe 
breaks? If the main reservoir supply pipe breaks? 

A.—Close the cut-out cock in the pipe broken. Either pipe 
broken means the loss of the automatic brake on the locomotive. 

Q. 6.—What should be done if the control reservoir pipe breaks? 

A.—The locomotive automatic brakes can not be applied if this 
pipe is broken, but if plugged, it can be applied and released with 
automatic brake valve; therefore, the pipe should be plugged. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Q. 1.—Explain the operation of the quick action triple valve. 

A.—In release position the auxiliary reservoir is charged from the 
brake pipe past the triple piston through the feed groove. A gradual 
brake pipe reduction causes auxiliary reservoir pressure to move the 
piston, slide and graduating valves to application position, admit¬ 
ting air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder; when 
the pressure in the auxiliary reservoir becomes a trifle lower than 
the brake pipe pressure, brake pipe pressure moves the piston and 
graduating valve to lap, thereby stopping the flow of air from the 
reservoir to the brake cylinder. 

A sudden reduction of brake pipe pressure causes auxiliary 
reservoir pressure to move the piston and slide valve to their extreme 
travel, which admits air above the emergency piston, forcing it and 
the emergency valve down, which then permits brake pipe pressure 
to raise the check valve and pass to the brake cylinder; auxiliary 
reservoir air also flows to the brake cylinder until equalized. By 
restoring brake pipe pressure the piston and slide valve are moved 



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to release position, exhausting the air from the brake cylinder and 
recharging the auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. 2.—What additional features are found in the “K” triple 
that are not found in the older types of triples? 

A.—The venting of the brake pipe air to the brake cylinder in 
service application; retarded release and restricted recharge. 

Q. 3.—What is meant by quick service? 

A.—As a result of venting the brake pipe pressure to the brake 
cylinder, which increases the rate of reduction under each car, the 
application is hastened throughout the train. 

Q. 4.—What is meant by retarded release? How is it obtained, 
and in what part of the train? 

A.—By retarded release is meant the retarding or restricting 
the exhaust of brake cylinder air in the release of an application of 
the brakes. When rise of brake pipe pressure is rapid, the triple 
valve is moved to retarded release position; in this position the brake 
cylinder pressure is exhausted through a restricted port, thereby 
delaying the release. Retarded release may be had on about the 
first thirty cars in the train. 

Q. 5.—Explain the operation of the high speed reducing valve? 

A.—The construction of the high speed reducing valve is such 
that, when the pressure in the brake cylinder exceeds 60 pounds, it 
will automatically make an opening from the brake cylinder to the 
atmosphere and allow the air to discharge until the pressure has 
been reduced to about 60 pounds, when it will close, holding about 
60 pounds in the brake cylinder. With an emergency application 
it is so constructed that it will reduce the pressure from the brake 
cylinder to the atmosphere from 85 pounds to 60 pounds in about 
27 seconds. 

Q. 6.—What are the essential parts of the “PC” brake as applied 
to a passenger car? 

A.—One service reservoir and brake cylinder, one emergency 
reservoir and brake cylinder, and a control valve and its divided 
reservoir. 

Q. 7.—In making a service application with the “PC” brake, how 
low can the brake pipe pressure be reduced before emergency appli¬ 
cation takes place? 

A.—To one-half of the original brake pipe pressure. 

Q. 8.—In making a service application what brake pipe reduction 
is necessary to insure the “PC”, brake applying? 

A.—Not less than 8 pounds. 

Q. 9—When should the brakes be released after an emergency 
application from any cause, and when should you proceed? 

A.—After train has stopped and brake pipe pressure has been 
restored to within 10 pounds of the normal pressure. 

Q. 10.—What is meant by an application of the brakes? 

A.—The first and including all subsequent reductions until the 
brakes are released. 



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287 


Q. 11.—How many'applications of the brakes should be made 
when making a stop with a passenger train, and why? 

A.—Two, to insure greater accuracy, and to avoid sliding of wheels 
and disagreeable back lurch. 

Q. 12.—Explain how you would make an ordinary service stop 
with a long freight train. What should the first reduction be, and 
why? 

A.—I would move brake valve from running to service position, 
making at least 7 to 10 pounds reduction, and would endeavor to 
make it so as to stop train at the desired point, but when about 
40 feet from the stopping point would start another reduction in 
order to increase the brake power on the forward end of train but not 
on rear end and prevent slack stretching at time of stopping. Before 
releasing the brakes the total brake pipe reduction should be 20 
pounds. 

Q. 13.—Explain how a stop at a water tank or coal chute should 
be made with a long freight train. 

A.—Make the ordinary service stop, not trying to "spot” the 
locomotive, but cutting off to obtain the supply. 

Q. 14.—In making a stop with a freight train, why should the 
brakes not be released until stop is completed? 

A.—Because the head brakes will release first and slack run 
out before the rear brakes release, resulting in a break-in-two or 
damage to equipment that will later on cause this trouble. 

Q. 15.—In releasing brakes on a long freight train, what should 
the engineman do to be sure that all brakes are released? 

A.—The brake valve handle should be placed in full release 
position and allowed to remain there until the brake pipe pressure 
has been restored to within 5 pounds of the normal. 

Q. 16.—If the brakes are dragging, how can they be released 
from the engine? 

A.—By making a reduction of brake pipe pressure, then placing 
the valve in full release position long enough to release all brakes, 
and then placing the valve in running position and leaving it there. 
With trains of 60 or more cars when moving at a speed of 15 miles 
or less per hour, come to a stop. 

Q. 17.—Why is it dangerous to repeatedly apply and release the 
brakes on grades without giving time for the auxiliaries to fully 
discharge? 

A.—As the feed ports in the triple valve are small, it requires 
considerable time to recharge the auxiliary reservoir, and if the 
brakes are repeatedly applied and released without sufficient interval 
of time to recharge, and braking power would be lost. 

Q. 18.—What benefits are derived from the use of the retaining 
valve? 

A.—When operated, it will retain a certain pressure in the brake 
cylinder, thereby assisting in retarding the movement of trains 
down grades while the brake pipe and auxiliary reservoirs are being 



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recharged, and will give a higher braking power on second applica¬ 
tion with the same reduction. 

Q. 19.—What does it indicate when making a service application, 
if the exhaust port closes quickly and the brakes go on hard? 

A.—That the brakes have applied in emergency. 

Q. 20.—When the brakes apply suddenly, what should engine- 
man do? 

A.—Immediately shut off steam and lap the brake valve. 

Q. 21.—In case a hose should burst while on the road, what 
should the engineman do to assist the trainmen in locating it? 

A.—After the train has come to a full stop, the engineer should 
occasionally move the brake valve to full release position for an 
instant, then return to lap position; by so doing there will be enough 
air permitted into the brake pipe to cause a blow at the point where 
the hose is burst. 

Q. 22.—When double heading, which engineman should have full 
control of the brakes and what should the other one do? 

A.—The head engineer should have full control of the brakes. 
The second engineer should have the cut-out cock closed under 
the brake valve. 

Q. 23.—As a rule, how great a reduction of brake pipe pressure 
is necessary to insure the brake piston being moved by the leakage 
groove? 

A.—This varies with the length of the train, but should never 
be less than 5 pounds. 

Q. 24.—From a 70-pound brake pipe pressure, how much of a 
reduction will be required to apply the brakes in full, and why? 

A.—About 20 pounds, after which brake cylinder and auxiliary 
reservoir pressure are equalized. 

Q. 25.—What effect has the piston travel on the pressure devel¬ 
oped in the brake cylinder? 

A.—The distance the piston travels determines the space to be 
filled by the air that is permitted to flow from the auxiliary to the 
cylinder, and the pressure, therefore, developed in the cylinder will 
be inversely proportional to the space the air fills. If the space is 
small, the pressure will be higher than if space is large. 

Q. 26.—When should the brakes be tested? 

A.—Before leaving a terminal, after angle cock has been closed 
for any cause, and at all designated points. 

Q. 27.—How should the brake valve be handled when making 
a terminal test of the brakes? 

A.—Make a reduction of about 10 pounds and note the length of 
brake pipe service exhaust, then make a further reduction of about 
15 pounds and hold the brake on until signaled to release, and do 
not go until signaled that all brakes have been applied and released. 

Q. 28.—What is meant by a running test? How and at what 
points on the road should it be made? 



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289 


A.—Apply the brakes lightly while the train is in motion, and note 
the blow that comes from the brake pipe exhaust; when the efficiency 
of the air brakes is known, the brakes should be at once released. 
It should be made approaching all railroad crossings, drawbridges, 
and all hazardous places, and within half a mile after standing test 
has been made. 

Q. 29.—What is the proper brake cylinder piston travel on engine 
and tender? 

A.—On engine and tender the piston travel should be such as to 
permit auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder pressure to equalize 
at 50 pounds from a brake pipe pressure of 70 pounds. 

On cars the piston travel should be adjusted to not less than 5 
inches nor more than 7 inches. 

Q. 30.—How is the slack taken up on engine and tender brakes? 

A.—On engine by the adjusting screw and on tender by the dead 
lever on each truck and by adjusting the lower connecting rod. 

Q. 31.—How often should the main reservoir be drained, and why? 

A.—At the end of each trip, as an accumulation of water in the 
main reservoir reduces its volume and is liable to cause trouble in 
the brake system. 

Q. 32.—What is the dead engine device, and when should it be 
used? 

A.—The dead engine device consists of a three-eighth-inch cut¬ 
out cock and combined strainer and check valve with suitable choke 
connections between the brake pipe and main reservoirs. It is used 
for the operation of locomotive brakes when the engine is being 
handled “dead” in the train, or the air pump is disabled. 

Q. 33.—Why is it important that piston travel be kept properly 
adjusted? 

A.—To insure a prompt application or release of the locomotive 
brake, economy in the use of air, and also to provide proper braking 
power. 

Q. 34.—What danger would there be from a leak of main reservoir 
air to the brake pipe, brakes applied, lap position? 

A.—The brakes would release. 

Q. 35.—Do you think it good practice to reverse the engine while 
the driver brake is applied, and why? 

A.—No, on account of wheels sliding and reducing braking power. 



Handling of Freight Trains 

The secret of successful train handling is in knowing how to 
control the slack action; that is, in knowing how to prevent its run¬ 
ning in or out quickly; and while this is at times difficult to do, yet 
by careful study of each train as we find it, it is possible to reduce 
to a minimum the pulling of drawbars. Time is a factor which enters 
largely into the successful control of the slack; slack can not be 
changed quickly without doing damage to the draft gear and the 
contents of the cars. It is therefore well to remember that when 
handling long trains, to give sufficient time for the gradual bunching 
or stretching of the slack, remembering again that the way to hurry 
is to go slow when handling these long trains. With the memory 
of our methods, when handling short trains, still before us, we are 
sometimes inclined to apply these methods when handling the long 
train, and this generally results in damage to the train, as the method 
used in handling a 50-car train would not be the proper method for 
handling a 100-car train. What we offer will simply be in the form 
of a suggestion. First, it may be said that, grade permitting, the 
“drift stop” is the most successful method of handling the big trains, 
and while in this more time is required to make the stop, yet if the 
time be taken from terminal to terminal and from one month’s end 
to the other, it will be found that time is saved as well as the draft 
gear. 

However, there are times when this method can not be used; as 
when making a stop on a favorable grade or where time will not 
permit; and it is then a question which brake is to be used, the auto¬ 
matic or straight air? Speaking generally, all stops made with the 
brakes should be made with the automatic brake, as experience has 
demonstrated that where the straight air is used, judgment is a 
thing forgotten; this to the man who closes the throttle with one 
hand and applies the straight air in full with the other. When mak¬ 
ing stops with trains of 90 to 125 cars, and the automatic brake used, 
steam should be shut off gradually, and ample time given fGr the slack 
to bunch, after which an 8 or 10-pound brake pipe reduction should 
be made and the automatic brake valve handle returned to lap 
position and left there until the train stops; as the speed decreases, 
the engine brake should be graduated off, having it almost fully 
released as the train comes to a stop. The reason for this method is, 
that in trains of this length it is practically impossible to obtain 
the maximum brake pipe pressure on the cars at or near the rear 
of the train, and it is no uncommon thing to find a variation of 20 
pounds between the two ends of the train. With this variation of 
pressure it will be readily understood that a 10-pound reduction 
of the pressure at the head end of the train will not cause the brakes 
to set on the rear end, and this of course will cause a hard running 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


291 


in of the slack, with a tendency toward driving in of the drawbars 
on the cars found in the head portion of the train, and by the gradu¬ 
ated release of the engine brake this is in a measure overcome. Now, 
to say that a train of this length can not be successfully stopped 
with the straight air brake would be to make a false statement, 
as it is done every day, and done successfully, many engineers 
using it exclusively in controlling their trains, even though the 
rules prohibit it. But then rules are created more particularly for 
those of us who lack in judgment, and the one rule of the many 
written is that which reads: “In case of doubt, take the safe side 
and run no risk;” and where in the judgment of the engineer the 
train can be handled more safely with the straight air than the 
automatic brake the straight air should be used. And in this he 
would not be infringing on any of the rules, as the above quoted rule 
would give him the right to use the straight air. That the time has 
arrived for the changing of the rule which prohibits the use of the 
straight air brake in the control of trains, and putting the matter 
entirely up to the judgment of the engineer, and holding him for 
the results obtained. 

Changing the rule would be an easy matter if all engineers under¬ 
stood and ■practiced the proper method in the handling of this brake in 
the controlling of trains; but this condition does not exist. Suppose 
a train on an ascending or a level grade and a stop being made with 
the straight air brake; if the brake is held applied until the stop is 
completed, the result should be the pulling of one or more drawbars. 
The reason for this is, that when the brake was applied the slack 
running in caused compression of the draft gear springs, and when 
the train was finally brought to a stop these compressed springs, 
assisted by the grade, will cause the slack to again run out, and if 
the straight air is still applied when this run-out of slack reaches 
the engine it will be very easy to understand what pulled the draw¬ 
bar. We might even go farther and say, that even though the engine 
brake was fully released just before the run-out of the slack reached 
the engine, the results, no doubt, would have been the same, as the 
severe jerk coming to the heavy engine would be more than the aver¬ 
age drawbar could stand. Where a train is to be controlled, that is, 
a stop made by use of the straight air brake, ample time should be 
given after steam is shut off for the slack to bunch before the brake 
is applied, after which the brake cylinder pressure should be built 
up slowly until the desired or maximum pressure is reached. Then, 
shortly before the stop is completed, the brake should be graduated 
off, thus allowing the compressed draft gear springs to run the 
slack out gradually, thereby preventing severe strains on the draft 
gear. The thickness and fit of the driving tires is another point to 
remember when using the straight air for the control of trains, as 
only too often tires are loosened, which causes delays and some¬ 
times calls for the assistance of the wrecking crew. 



Reasons for Air Pumps 
Running Hot 

There are several reasons for an air pump running hot, the 
principal ones are as follows: (l)Lack of lubrication; (2) air valves 
stuck open or shut; (3) running the pump too fast; (4) air piston 
packing rings worn; (5) air cylinder worn; (6) working against high 
pressure; (7) air passages in pump partially stopped up. 

Lack of lubrication.—The amount of oil to be fed to the air end 
of the pump depends largely on the amount of work required of the 
pump, also its condition, as, where the packing rings and air valves 
are leaking, heat is generated, which destroys the oil. However, 
but little oil is needed, if given at the proper time. Where an air 
cylinder lubricator is used, it must not be treated as a continuous 
feed lubricator, but must be employed rather as a valve for use only 
when it becomes necessary to feed a few drops of oil to the pump. 

Air valve stuck open or shut.—Where the air valves do not seat 
properly, the air will course back and forth through the air pas¬ 
sages, causing the pump to heat quickly; where a receiving valve is 
stuck shut, the air will be unable to enter the pump at the end where 
is located the defective valve, and the pump will heat; if both re¬ 
ceiving valves stick shut, the pump will work fast, heat quickly, and 
no air will be taken in, consequently no air delivered to the main 
reservoir. If a discharge valve sticks shut, the air can not leave the 
pump at the end where is located the defective valve, but must leak 
past the piston packing rings, thus creating friction, causing the 
pump to heat. If both discharge valves are stuck shut, the pump 
will work very slowly and will heat quickly, and no air will be deliv¬ 
ered to the main reservoir. 

Running the pump too fast.—When air is compressed, heat is 
created, and the faster the air is compressed the higher will be its 
temperature; also, the faster the pump is run the less time there is 
for the radiation of heat between the strokes. Therefore, since more 
heat is generated and less heat radiated at each stroke, it will be 
understood that the temperature of the pump will increase with its 
speed. 

Air piston packing rings worn.—There is nothing that will cause 
a pump to heat more quickly than leaky piston packing rings, as 
where packing rings are badly worn, air can pass them in either di¬ 
rection, therefore less cool air is taken into the cylinder. For as the 
piston moves forward it compresses the air, causing its temperature 
to rise, and some of this heated air will leak past the piston and raise 
the temperature of the incoming air before it is compressed, resulting 
in a much higher temperature when it is compressed. There is still 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


293 


another reason why a pump will heat on account of leaky packing rings, 
and that is: As the pump neither takes in nor discharges as much 
air as it would if the packing rings were tight, it follows that the pump 
will have to work faster and for a greater length of time to compress 
the required amount of air. 

Air cylinder worn.—The effect of a worn cylinder is much the 
same as though the packing rings were leaking, as here, too, air will 
leak past the piston. 

Working against high pressure.—When air is compressed, heat is 
created, and the higher the pressure to which it is compressed, the 
higher will be its temperature. Therefore, where a pump is working 
for any great length of time against a high pressure, great heat will 
be created. 

Air passages partially stopped up.—When the air passages on the 
discharge side of the pump, or the discharge pipe, is partially stopped 
up, the effect is much the same as when the pump is working against 
a high main reservoir pressure; as more work will have to be done 
to force the air through the choked opening, thereby causing the 
pump to heat. 

Piston rod packing wearing or burning out.—To prevent the 
rapid wearing or burning out of the piston rod packing, it is necessary 
to maintain a clean and well oiled swab on the piston, and it must 
be remembered that it is useless to put oil on a swab unless it is first 
cleaned, as the oil will do no good unless it reaches the piston rod, 
which it can not do unless the swab be clean. Where packing is blow¬ 
ing bad, the oil will be blown from the swab about as fast as it is ap¬ 
plied, and the piston rod and packing will become dry. Where this 
condition exists it will be found good practice to make a swab of 
hard grease. This may be done by taking, say a piece of an old flag, 
and wrapping up in it some hard grease, then tie around the piston 
rod. Never use signal or engine oil on the swab, as the tempera¬ 
ture of the piston rod is above the flashing point of these oils. 



Definition of the Terms 
Piston Travel, Running 
Travel, Standing Travel 

The terms “piston travel,” “running travel,” and “standing 
travel” are quite commonly used in air brake discussions, and a 
definition of these terms may be given as follows: Piston travel, 
speaking generally, is the distance that the brake cylinder piston 
is moved outward when the brake is applied. To measure the travel, 
mark the piston rod close to the cylinder head when the brake is re¬ 
leased, then noting the distance this mark is from the cylinder head 
when the brake is set. When taking such measurements the brake 
should be applied with a full service application. Standing travel: 
This is the distance the piston moves outward when the brake is ap¬ 
plied upon a car that is not in motion. Running travel: This is 
the distance the piston moves outward when the brake is applied 
on a car that is in motion. The running travel is always greater 
than the standing travel, this increase of travel being due to the 
brake shoes pulling down on the wheels, slack in loose-fitting brasses, 
play between the boxes and pedestals and the lost motion through¬ 
out the brake rigging. To measure the running travel, mark the 
piston rod close to the cylinder head, then, with the train running 
at a speed that will allow for a full service application, apply the 
brakes in full, and hold them applied until the train comes to a stop; 
the distance the mark is from the cylinder head is the running travel. 
In studying the effects of piston travel, it must be remembered that 
in any application of the brakes the pressure developed in the brake 
cylinder depends on two things—the actual piston travel at the 
time the brake is applied and the amount of brake pipe reduction 
made. Therefore, when desiring to know the actual pressure de¬ 
veloped in the brake cylinder for any given reduction, it is neces¬ 
sary to consider the running travel and not the standing travel; 
and as the running travel is always the greater, the cylinder pressure 
will be less. The reason for this, as no doubt is understood, is that 
brake cylinder volume depends on the amount of piston travel; if 
the latter is short, the volume is small, and the air coming from the 
auxiliary reservoir will create a higher brake cylinder pressure than 
if the piston travel were longer and the cylinder volume thereby 
greater. The running travel should be noted carefully on both driver 
and tender brakes, as where a standing travel of nine or ten inches 
is permitted it will be found that the brake pistons will be out against 
the cylinder heads and the brake power greatly reduced. This is 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


295 


especially true following an emergency application; when due to the 
high pressure, the pistons will be forced against the cylinder heads. 
There seems to be a tendency on the part of enginemen and round¬ 
house employes to neglect the brakes on locomotives equipped with 
either the “ET” or “LT” types of brakes on account of the brake 
cylinder pressure not being affected by piston travel. But it must be 
remembered that if the brake piston has traveled the full length of 
its cylinder, and is against the cylinder head, it matters not what 
pressure may be had in the cylinder, the brake power will be affected. 
In adjusting the brakes on locomotives having either the “ET” or 
“LT” equipment, just sufficient piston travel should be allowed as 
will give the proper shoe clearance, and where this is done, the brake 
will be more prompt in applying and releasing. 



The Westinghouse “PC” 
Passenger Brake 
Equipment 

With the introduction of heavy (125,000 pounds to 150,000 pounds) 
passenger equipment cars in steam road service, a greater braking 
force was required to control such heavy cars than was obtainable 
with a single brake cylinder using the highest brake cylinder pressure. 

The increased speed and weight of trains, together with the in¬ 
crease in their length and consequently the much greater volume 
of air that must be handled through the brake pipe, have imposed 
conditions too severe to be met satisfactorily by the type of brake 
which met past conditions adequately. 

Certain requirements essential in a satisfactory brake for this 
modern service demanded changes in the valve device used on the 
car, which led to the development of the equipment known as the 
Westinghouse Improved Brake Equipment, Schedule “PC,” em¬ 
ploying what is known as a control valve. 


NOVEL FUNCTIONS CLAIMED. 

First.—Graduated release and Quick recharge, obtained as with 
previous improved types of triple valves (e. g., Type L). The air 
supply to assist in recharging and to accomplish the graduations 
of the release is taken from the emergency reservoir. 

Second.—Certainty and uniformity of service action secured by 
insuring that the valve parts move so as to close the feed grooves 
on the slightest brake pipe reductions, the design of the valves being 
such as to then cause the necessary and proper differential to be built 
up to move the parts to service position as the brake pipe reduction 
is continued. 

Third.—Quick rise in brake cylinder pressure, provided for by 
insuring a prompt movement of the parts and direct and unrestricted 
passages from reservoirs to brake cylinders during applications. 

Fourth.—Uniformity and maintenance of service brake cylinder 
pressure during the stop, provided for in the same manner as by the 
application portion of the distributing valve. 

Fifth.—Predetermined limiting of service braking power, fixed 
by the equalization of the pressure and application chambers of the 
control valve, which eliminates the safety valve feature of previous 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


297 


equipments. After such equalization has taken place, any further 
brake pipe reduction causes the moving parts of the valve to travel 
slightly beyond the service position to the “over-reduction” posi¬ 
tion. Air is then vented from the pressure chamber to the reduc¬ 
tion limiting chamber until equalization takes place between these 
two chambers, if the brake pipe reduction is continued far enough. 
During this time the application chamber remains at the first equal¬ 
ization pressure and the brake cylinder pressure is maintained ac¬ 
cordingly. 

The maximum service brake cylinder pressure (service equal¬ 
ization) is fixed at 86 pounds. On this account it is claimed to be 
possible to use a much lower total leverage ratio (which is necessary 
if the required efficiency of the foundation brake rigging for the 
class of cars considered, is to be maintained). This equalization 
pressure corresponds to a reduction of 24 pounds from 110 pounds 
brake pipe pressure, which is the reduction required with the old 
style high speed brake equipment to give maximum service brake 
cylinder pressure (60 pounds, corresponding to the opening point 
of the high speed reducing valve). 

Sixth.—Automatic emergency application on depletion of brake 
pipe pressure. If the brake pipe reduction is still further continued 
below the point at which the pressure and reduction limiting cham¬ 
bers equalize, the parts move to emergency position and cause both 
the quick action and emergency portions to operate, starting serial 
quick action throughout the train and obtaining emergency brake 
cylinder pressure. 

Seventh.—Full emergency braking power at any time. As the 
operation of the emergency and quick action portions is dependent 
only upon the movement of the parts to emergency position and as 
this can be caused at any time by making an emergency application 
with the brake valve, conductor’s valve, etc., it follows that full 
emergency braking power can be obtained at any time, irrespective 
of a service application previously made. 

Eighth.—The service and emergency features being separated 
permits the necessary flexibility for service applications to be ob¬ 
tained. 

Ninth.—A low total leverage ratio, with correspondingly greater 
overall efficiency, is made possible by the use of two brake cylinders 
per car, and also higher service equalization pressure. 

Tenth.—Less sensitiveness to the fluctuations in brake pipe 
pressure, which tend to cause undesired light applications of the 
brake, which helps against brakes creeping on or dragging or burn¬ 
ing of brake shoes. 

Eleventh.—Maximum rate of rise of brake pipe pressure pos¬ 
sible with given length of brake pipe. With non-graduated release 
equipments or previous graduated release equipments operating 
with graduated release feature cut-out, the recharging of the brake 
pipe toward the rear end of a train of any length may become very 



298 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


slow, due to the draining away of the air from the forward end of 
the brake pipe by the large reservoirs with large size feed grooves 
which take their entire supply from the brake pipe only. The quick 
recharge feature of the “PC” equipment is claimed to overcome this 
difficulty, either with or without graduated release cut in, by re¬ 
storing the pressure to the pressure chamber on each car at as rapid 
a rate as the brake pipe pressure alone can be raised by the flow of 
air through the brake valve. Consequently, up to the point of 
equalization of the pressure chamber and the emergency reservoir 
under each car (about 5 pounds less than normal brake pipe pres¬ 
sure), no air is being drawn from the brake pipe. This makes pos¬ 
sible a prompt and certain release of the brakes, and a rapid recharge 
and prompt response to successive reductions which may be made, 
because (1) practically no air is drawn from the brake pipe; (2) pres¬ 
sure chamber and brake pipe air pressure recharge at the same 
rate; and (3) with graduated release cut out, no air is supplied to 
pressure chamber except from brake pipe. 

Twelfth.—Greatly increased sensitiveness to release tends to 
produce a very slow rate of rise of brake pipe pressure when releasing 
and recharging, especially toward the end of a long train of heavy 
cars having large reservoirs. It then becomes necessary to provide 
the maximum sensitiveness to an increase in brake pipe pressure, 
in order to insure all valves in the train responding as intended. 

Thirteenth.—The elimination of the graduated release feature 
is provided for in the construction of the valve. During the transi¬ 
tion period, when graduated release equipment is likely to be han¬ 
dled in the same train with cars not equipped with a graduated 
release brake, especially where long trains are handled and the air 
supplied from the brake pipe likely to be limited in any way from 
any cause, it is usually best to cut out the graduated release feature 
until all cars are furnished with this type of brake. All that is 
required to change the “PC” equipment from the graduated to a di¬ 
rect release brake or vice versa, is the loosening of a bolt and turn¬ 
ing of the “direct and graduated release cap” on the front of the 
control valve head until the desired position is indicated, the bolt 
being then re-tightened. 


APPARATUS—BRAKE CYLINDERS. 

Two brake cylinders per car are used. Only one brake cylinder 
operates during service applications, but both are brought into play 
when an emergency application is made. This is claimed to give 
the necessary increased braking power for emergency applications, 
not by an increased pressure in one brake cylinder (as in previous 
equipments), but by bringing the same brake cylinder pressure to 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


299 


act upon the pistons of two brake cylinders instead of one. This 
means that double the maximum service braking is obtained in emer¬ 
gency applications. 

A slack adjuster is used on each brake cylinder connected by a 
pipe to the proper slack adjuster hole in the service brake cylin¬ 
der. In this way both slack adjusters are made to operate simul¬ 
taneously and the slack is taken up equally for both cylinders, 
depending on the travel of the service brake cylinder piston. 


RESERVOIRS. 

Two supply or storage reservoirs are used, denoted as the service 
and emergency reservoirs, respectively, according to the brake cyl¬ 
inders to which they are related. The service reservoir is used to 
supply air only to the service brake cylinder. The emergency reser¬ 
voir, in addition to supplying air to the emergency brake cylinder 
in emergency applications, is also the source of supply utilized in 
obtaining the graduated release and the prompt recharging of the 
equipment in service operation. 

In addition to these reservoirs there is the control valve reser¬ 
voir of three compartments, called the pressure chamber, applica¬ 
tion chamber, and reduction limiting chamber, respectively. This 
reservoir bear§ practically the same relation to the control valve that 
the distributing valve reservoir bears to the distributing valve of 
the “ET” locomotive brake equipment. 

The valve portions of the control valve are supported upon this 
reservoir, which is bolted to the undervaluing of the car. All pipe 
connections are made permanently to this reservoir, so that no pipe 
connections need to be disturbed in the removal or replacement of 
any one of the control valve portions. 


CONTROL VALVE. 

The control valve, corresponding in a general way to the triple 
valve of the old style passenger equipment, or more closely to the 
distributing valve of the “ET” locomotive brake, consists of four 
portions: 

(1) Equalizing portion. 

(2) Application portion. 

(3) Emergency portion. 

(4) Quick action portion. 

The compartment reservoir is made up of the following chambers: 

Pressure chamber. 

Application chamber. 

Reduction limiting chamber. 



300 


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The equalizing portion is similar, in a general way, to the equal¬ 
izing portion of the distributing valve used with the “ET” equip¬ 
ment, or the plain triple valve of the old style brake. It is the 
portion which is directly affected by variations in brake pipe pres¬ 
sure and it controls (either directly or indirectly, through the 
medium of the other portions of the control valve), the desired charg¬ 
ing of the reservoirs, the application of the brake, whether in service 
or emergency, and the release of the brake. 

The application portion corresponds to the application portion 
of the distributing valve used with the “ET” equipment. It con¬ 
trols the flow of air only from service reservoir to service brake 
cylinder and the release of same, and has nothing to do with the emer¬ 
gency reservoir or the emergency brake cylinder. 

The emergency portion contains a double piston and slide valve 
which controls the flow of air from the emergency reservoir to the 
emergency cylinder and the release of same to the atmosphere. 

The quick action portion corresponds in general design and func¬ 
tion to the quick action portion of a triple valve. It operates only 
when an emergency application of the brakes is made, vents brake 
pipe air to atmosphere locally on each car and closes the vent to 
the atmosphere automatically after the desired brake pipe reduc¬ 
tion has been made. 


GENERAL HINTS. 


The brake should be handled by the engineers in the same man¬ 
ner as with cars equipped with quick action triples, the only 
difference being that an emergency application will be obtained 
should a service reduction of the brake pipe pressure be continued 
below 60 pounds when carrying 110 pounds pressure, or below 35 
pounds with 70 pounds brake pipe pressure. 

When it is found necessary to cut out the brake, close the cut¬ 
out cock in the cross-over pipe and bleed both the service and emer¬ 
gency reservoirs. 

Should it become necessary to bleed the brake when the engine 
is detached, or air connection is not made, first bleed the brake 
pipe and then bleed both the service and emergency reservoirs. 

The two sets of cylinder levers are connected to the same truck 
pull rods as stated above. Therefore, when a service application 
of the brake is made, the push rod end of the emergency cylinder 
lever will move the same distance as the push rod end of the service 
cylinder lever, but the crosshead being slotted, the piston of the 
emergency cylinder will not move. Consequently, the fact that the 
emergency cylinder crosshead is in release position does not indicate 
that the air brakes are released. To determine this, look at the 
push rod of the service cylinder. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


301 


Whenever it is necessary to change the adjustment of the auto¬ 
matic slack adjuster, it is imperative that the crossheads of the 
two adjusters be left at the same distance from their respective 
brake cylinder heads, in order that the piston travel of the two 
cylinders in emergency application will be the same. 

The quick action exhaust is the one-inch opening in the bottom 
of the control valve reservoir. Should there be a continual blow 
at this opening, make an emergency application and then release; 
if the blow continues, remove the quick action portion and substi¬ 
tute a new or repaired portion or repair the quick action valve seat 
which will be found defective. The quick action portion is at the 
left hand when facing the equalizing portion. 

There are three control valve exhaust openings, two on the equal¬ 
izing portion and one on the side of the control valve reservoir, all 
tapped for 24-inch pipe. 

Should there be a blow at the application chamber exhaust 
(24-inch exhaust opening on the side of the control valve reservoir) 
with the brakes applied or released, make a 15-pound service reduc¬ 
tion and then bleed both the service and emergency reservoirs. 
Should the blow continue, it indicates that the equalizing portion 
is defective and a new one, or one that has been repaired, should 
be substituted. 

Should there be a blow at the reduction limiting chamber ex¬ 
haust (24-inch exhaust on the left-hand side of the equalizing por¬ 
tion), make a 30-pound brake pipe reduction and lap the brake valve. 
If the blow ceases, it indicates that the application portion is de¬ 
fective and a new one, or one that has been repaired, should be 
substituted. This portion is located back of the equalizing portion, 
inside the reservoir. If the blow does not cease, it indicates that 
the equalizing portion is defective and a new one, or one that has 
been repaired, should be substituted. 

Should there be a blow at the emergency piston exhaust (24-inch 
exhaust on the right-hand side of the equalizing portion), make 
a 15-pound brake pipe reduction and lap the brake valve. If the 
blow ceases, it indicates that the emergency portion is defective, 
and a new one, or one that has been repaired, should be substituted. 
If the blow does not cease, it indicates that the equalizing portion 
is defective and a new one, or one that has been repaired, should 
be substituted. 

A hard blow at the service brake cylinder exhaust (tapped for 
%-inch pipe and located on the side of the control valve reservoir), 
with the brakes either applied or released, indicates that the ap¬ 
plication portion is defective and a new one, or one that has been 
repaired, should be substituted. This portion is located back of 
the equalizing portion inside the reservoir. 

A hard blow at the emergency cylinder exhaust (tapped for 
H-inch pipe and located on the bottom of the control valve reser¬ 
voir), with the brakes either applied or released, indicates a 



302 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


defective emergency portion, ancl a new one, or one that has been 
repaired, should be substituted. 

If the trouble described in the five paragraphs preceding are 
not overcome by the remedies therein suggested, remove the ap¬ 
plication portion and examine its gasket, as a defect in same may 
be the cause of the difficulty. 

When removing the application, emergency, and quick action 
portions, their respective gaskets should remain on the reservoir. 
On removing the equalizing portion, its gasket should remain on 
the application portion, except when the application portion is 
shipped to and from points where triple valves are cared for. 

When applying the different portions the gaskets should be 
carefully examined, to see that no ports are restricted, and that 
the gasket is not defective between ports. 

On the front and at the center of the equalizing portion is lo¬ 
cated the direct and graduated release cap (held by a single stud) 
on which is a pointer. The position of this pointer indicates whether 
the valve is adjusted for direct release or graduated release. This 
cap should be adjusted for either direct or graduated release according 
to the instructions issued by the railroad. 


LUBRICATION OF No. 3-E CONTROL VALVE. 


Equalizing portion .—All equalizing portions should be lubricated 
with dry graphite instead of oiling. 

The following is a good method of lubricating the equalizing 
portion:— 

After the bearing surfaces have been properly rubbed in by a 
free use of oil, this oil should be wiped off with a soft cloth or some 
soft material. All oil, gum, or grease should be thoroughly removed 
from the slide valves and seats. After this has been done, rub a 
high grade of very fine, dry (not flake) graphite, of the highest ob¬ 
tainable fineness and purity, onto the face of the slide valves, their 
seats, the face of the graduating valves, their seats, and the upper 
portion of the bushings where the slide valve springs bear, in order 
to make as much as possible adhere and fill in the pores of the brass 
and leave a very thin, light coating of graphite on the seats. When 
this is completed, the slide valves and their seats must be entirely 
free from oil or grease. Care must be taken when handling the 
slide valves, after lubricating, that the hands do not come in con¬ 
tact with the lubricated parts, as moisture will tend to remove the 
thin coating of graphite. 

To apply the graphite, use a stick, suitable for the purpose, 
about eight inches long, on one end of which a small pad of chamois 
skin has been glued. Dip the skin covered end in the dry graphite 
and rub the latter on the surfaces specified. A few light blows 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


303 


of the stick on the slide valve seats will leave the desired light coat¬ 
ing of loose graphite. After the piston and slide valves have been 
replaced in the equalizing portion, they should be moved to re¬ 
lease position and a little oil applied to the circumference of the 
piston bushings, and the pistons moved back and forth several 
times to insure proper distribution of this oil on the walls of the 
cylinders. 

When oiling, as just directed or in the cases which follow, only 
a thin coating of oil is necessary, and care should be taken not to 
leave any free oil on the parts. 

Application portion. —The exhaust valve and seat and the ap¬ 
plication valve and seat of the application portion should be cleaned, 
rubbed in and lubricated with graphite in a manner similar to that 
just explained for the equalizing slide valve and seat. 

Before applying the piston to application portion, clean the 
application cylinder and piston. Lubricate the walls of the cylin¬ 
der and piston ring, using a good grade of triple valve oil; apply a 
few drops of oil on the packing leather. 

Emergency portion. —After the bearing surfaces have been proper¬ 
ly cleaned, rubbed in and lubricated with graphite, as specified 
for the equalizing portion and before applying the slide valve to 
the emergency portion, remove the top cover and take out the loose 
fitting cylinder bushing. Lubricate the large piston with a few 
drops of a good grade of triple valve oil and apply the slide valve 
to the portion. Lubricate the slip bushing for the small emergency 
piston, applying a few drops of triple valve oil to inner circumference. 
Apply the bushing to the portion and bolt on top cover. Move the 
slide valve to release position and put a few drops of triple valve oil 
on the walls of large cylinder bushing. Move the slide valve and 
piston back and forth several times to insure a proper distribution 
of the oil. Apply the large cover to the emergency portion. 

Quick action portion. —The only parts of the quick action por¬ 
tion requiring lubrication are the closing valve piston and cylinder 
bushing. A few drops of triple valve oil on these parts is all that 
is needed. After lubricating, work the piston a few times, making 
sure that it moves freely. 




304 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



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ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


305 


WESTINGHOUSE “PC” PASSENGER BRAKE EQUIPMENT. 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

Q-—On what is this type of brake designed to operate? 

A.—On passenger equipment cars. 

Q.—What made necessary this design of brake? 

A.—With the introduction of heavy cars it was found that the 
older type of brakes was not able to meet the demands, a§ the brake 
force required to control the heavy cars was so great as to exceed the 
capacity of the triple valve and the apparatus used with it. 

Q.—Is it to be understood from this that the “PC” equipment 
can not be applied to the lighter weight cars? 

A.—No; the “PC” equipment may be applied to cars of any 
weight, the same size and type of control valve being used on all cars. 

Q.—Name the different parts of the “PC” equipment. 

A.—Control valve, control valve or compartment reservoir, 
service reservoir, emergency reservoir, service brake cylinder and 
emergency brake cylinder. 

Q.—Can cars having this type of brake be run in trains with other 
cars equipped with the triple valve? 

A.—Yes; the “PC” equipment has all the automatic features of 
the older types of brakes. 

Q.—What additional features has the “PC” equipment not found 
in the older types of brakes? 

A.—Brake cylinder pressure is not effected by piston travel or 
leakage in service applications; full emergency pressure may be 
obtained at any time, even though a service application has been 
made; brake will automatically apply in emergency, whenever the 
brake pipe pressure is reduced below a given amount; maximum 
brake cylinder pressure obtained in a much shorter time; braking 
power in emergency may be twice as great as that in service; quick 
recharge of brake pipe pressure and the use of graduated release 
when desired. 

Q.—How is the service brake cylinder pressure maintained against 
leakage? 

A.—This is taken care of by the application portion of the control 
valve in the same manner as the application piston and valve in the 
distributing valve of the “ET” equipment maintains the brake 
cylinder pressure on the locomotive. 

Q.—How is full emergency pressure obtained after the brake has 
been applied in service? 

A.—Full emergency braking power may be obtained at any time 
by making a sudden reduction of brake pipe pressure, as by moving 
the brake valve to emergency position, hose bursting, train parting, 
opening of conductor valve, in fact anything that will cause a sudden 
reduction of brake pipe pressure will cause the brake to work quick 



306 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


action. Quick action may also be obtained by a gradual reduction 
of brake pipe pressure, where this reduction is made below a given 
amount. As the service and emergency features are separated in 
this equipment it follows that full emergency braking power may be 
had at any time, even though a service application has been made. 

Q.—Explain how the brake will apply automatically in emergency 
when a gradual reduction of brake pipe pressure is made below a 
given amount. 

A.—Owing to the construction and operation of the control valve 
the emergency features of the valve do not operate when a gradual 
reduction of brake pipe pressure is made until the pressure is reduced 
below a given amount, and this reduction may be made through the 
brake valve, or by brake pipe leakage while the brake valve is in lap 
position. However, when the brake pipe pressure is reduced suffi¬ 
ciently the parts in the equalizing portion of the control valve will 
move to emergency position, causing the emergency portion to oper¬ 
ate and apply the brake in emergency. 

Q.—What is meant by reducing the brake pipe pressure below a 
given amount; in other words, to what pressure must the brake pipe 
air be reduced, when making a gradual reduction before the brake 
will work quick action? 

A.—Whenever the brake pipe pressure is reduced one-half in a 
single application the brake will apply to quick action. For example: 
If the brake is charged to 110 pounds, and in a single application is 
reduced to 55 pounds (one-half) the control valve should move to 
emergency position, and the brakes apply in quick action; if the brake 
were charged to but 70 pounds at the time the application was started, 
then it would be necessary when making a gradual reduction to reduce 
the pressure to 35 pounds (one-half) before the control valve would 
move to emergency position and apply the brakes in quick action; 
again, if the brake were charged to 90 pounds, drawing the pressure 
down to 45 pounds (one-half) would cause quick action. From this 
it will be seen that the point to which the brake pipe pressure must 
be reduced varies with the pressure with which the brake is charged 
at the commencement of the application. 

Q.—How is the maximum brake cylinder pressure obtained in a 
much shorter time with the “PC” equipment than with older types 
of brakes? 

A.—This is secured by a more prompt movement of the parts to 
application position when the required reduction is made, and by 
larger and more direct ports for the air to flow through. 

Q.—Explain how the braking power may be twice as great in 
emergency as in a service application of the brake. 

A.—As stated in answer to a former question, each car is equipped 
with two brake cylinders; one cylinder is used for service braking, 
while both are used when making an emergency application. Both 
cylinders may be the same size, and as the same pressure is obtained 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


307 


in both it follows that the brake power in emergency is double that 
obtained in service. 

Q.—Explain how the brake pipe may be more quickly recharged 
with this than with the older equipment. 

A.—With the older type of brakes, when the brake pipe is being 
recharged for the purpose of releasing the brakes as each triple valve 
moves to release position it commences to take air from the brake 
pipe for the recharge of its auxiliary reservoir, thereby keeping the 
pressure in the brake pipe from raising promptly. Whereas with the 
‘ ‘PC” equipment, the quick recharge feature overcomes this trouble. 
A better understanding of this will be had in what is to follow. 

Q.—How is the maximum brake cylinder pressure limited in serv¬ 
ice braking? 

A.—This is brought about in the same manner as with the dis¬ 
tributing valve in the “ET” equipment; when the pressure chamber 
and application chamber air equalizes, the maximum service braking 
power is obtained. For example: With a 70-pound pressure the 
pressure chamber and application chamber in the distributing valve 
will equalize at 50 pounds, while with a 110 pressure the pressure 
chamber and application chamber of the control valve will equalize 
at 86 pounds; therefore, with the distributing valve and 70 pounds 
pressure the service braking power is limited to 50 pounds, while 
with the control valve and 110 pounds pressure the service braking 
power is limited to 86 pounds. This eliminates the use of safety 
valves or high speed reducing valves as used with the older equip¬ 
ment. 

Q.—What effect have fluctuations of brake pipe pressure due to the 
improper action of the feed valve on the control valve? 

A.—The control valve is not affected by the variations of the 
brake pipe pressure, as it requires at least a 7-pound reduction 
of brake pipe pressure to move the control valve to application 
position, and it is seldom, if ever, that the feed valve allows such 
variation of pressure. 

Q.—When should the graduated release feature be used? When 
should the direct release feature be used, and how is the control 
valve changed from graduated to direct release and vice versa? 

A.—The graduated release feature should be used when the brakes 
on all cars in the train have this feature, or may be used with other 
types of brakes on short trains. Direct release to be used when other 
cars in the train are not equipped with graduated release brakes. 
To change from graduated to direct release or vice versa, all that is 
necessary is to loosen the nut on the direct and graduated release 
cap on the front of the control valve and turn the cap to the desired 
position as indicated on the control valve, then retighten the nut. 



308 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


CONTROL VALVE. 

Q.—What does the control valve compare with in the old style 
passenger equipment? 

A.—With the triple valve, as it performs all the functions of the 
triple. 

Q.—With what other device does it more closely correspond? 

A.—With the distributing valve of the 1 ‘ET” equipment, and may 
be said to be a modified distributing valve made applicable to cars. 

Q.—How many parts or portions are there to the control valve? 

A.—Four. 

Q.—Name the different parts. 

A.—Equalizing portion, application portion, emergency portion, 
and quick action portion. 

Q.—What is the duty of the equalizing portion? 

A.—The equalizing portion in a general way controls the charging 
of the emergency and service reservoirs, and the application and 
release of the brake in both service and emergency applications; 
in other words, the air that operates the other portions of the valve 
must first pass through the equalizing portion. 

Q.—What is the duty of the application portion? 

A.—The application portion controls the flow of air from the serv¬ 
ice reservoir to the service brake cylinder in both service and emer¬ 
gency applications of the brake, also exhausts the air from this 
cylinder; but neither admits or exhausts the air from the emergency 
brake cylinder. 

Q.—What is the duty of the emergency portion? 

A.—The emergency portion controls the flow of air from the emer¬ 
gency reservoir to the emergency brake cylinder in an emergency 
application of the brake, and exhausts this air when the brake 
is released. 

Q.—What is the duty of the quick action portion? 

A.—The duty of the quick action portion is similar to the quick 
action portion of the triple valve, that is, it operates only when an 
emergency application of the brake is made, when it vents brake 
pipe air to the atmosphere, causing a local reduction of this pressure 
on each car. 


COMPARTMENT RESERVOIR. 

Q.—How many compartments are there in this reservoir? 

A.—Three. 

Q.—Name them. 

A.—Pressure chamber, reduction limiting chamber, and applica¬ 
tion chamber. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


309 


Q.—What is the purpose of the pressure chamber? 

A.—The purpose of the pressure chamber may be compared to 
that of the auxiliary reservoir in the old equipment, or a still closer 
comparison may be made with the pressure chamber of the dis¬ 
tributing valve of the “ET” equipment, as it is here that air is stored 
for the purpose of moving the parts to application position, when a 
brake pipe reduction is made. 

Q.—What is the purpose of the reduction limiting chamber? 

A.—It is to provide a chamber for the venting of a limited amount 
of pressure chamber air whenever a brake pipe reduction is made 
below the Equalizing point of the pressure chamber and application 
chamber. 

Q.—What is the purpose of the application chamber? 

A.—It is into this chamber that air is admitted for the purpose 
of moving the application piston and valve to application position 
when applying the brake. 


RESERVOIRS. 


Q.—How many reservoirs are there on each car? 

A.—Two. 

Q.—Name these reservoirs. 

A.—Service and emergency reservoirs. 

Q.—Are both reservoirs the same size? 

A.—No; the service reservoir is the larger. 

Q.—What is the purpose of the service reservoir? 

A.—To apply air to the service brake cylinder in both service 
and emergency applications of the brake. 

Q.—What is the purpose of the emergency reservoir? 

A.—The emergency reservoir supplies air to the emergency brake 
cylinder in an emergency application of the brake, and following 
the release of a service application its air is used to secure the gradu¬ 
ated release feature and quick recharge of the pressure chamber. 


BRAKE CYLINDERS. 


Q.—How many cylinders are used on a car having this equipment? 
A.—Two. 

Q.—Name these cylinders. 

A.—Service and emergency cylinders. 

Q.—When is the service cylinder used? 

A.—The service cylinder is used on all brake applications, that 
is, it operates in both service and emergency applications. 

Q.—When is the emergency cylinder used? 




310 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—The emergency cylinder is used only when making an emer¬ 
gency application of the brake, and does not operate when a service 
application is made. 

Q.—Are both cylinders the same size? 

A.—Yes, both cylinders are generally the same size; however, 
where they differ in size, the emergency cylinder is the smaller. 


PIPE CONNECTIONS. 

Q.—Name the different pipe connections to the compartment 
reservoir. 

A.—When facing the valve the upper pipe on the left leads to the 
service reservoir; the lower pipe on the left is the brake pipe con¬ 
nection ; the upper pipe on the right leads to the service brake cylin¬ 
der; the middle pipe to the emergency reservoir, and the lower pipe 
to the emergency brake cylinder. 


OPERATION OF THE CONTROL VALVE. 

RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION. 

Q.—Where does the air come from to charge this equipment? 

A.—From the brake pipe, through the cross-over pipe and enters 
the control valve. 

Q.—What pressure is .found in these different chambers and reser¬ 
voirs when fully charged? 

A.—Brake pipe pressure. 

Q.—When the control valve is in release or service position, to 
what is the reduction limiting chamber connected? 

A.—To the reduction limiting chamber exhaust, which is the 
f^-inch opening on the left side of equalizing portion. 

Q.—When the control valve is in release position, to what is the 
application chamber connected? 

A.—To the application chamber exhaust, which is }4-inch opening 
on left side of reservoir. 

Q.—When in release, to what is the service brake cylinder con¬ 
nected? 

A.—It is connected to the atmosphere through the exhaust slide 
valve of the application portion, and the service brake cylinder 
exhaust port, which is the ;*4-inch opening on the left side of the 
reservoir. 

Q.—To what is the emergency brake cylinder connected when the 
control valve is in release position? 

A.—To the atmosphere through the emergency slide valve and 
emergency brake cylinder exhaust port, which is the 3^-inch open¬ 
ing in bottom of the compartment reservoir. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


311 


SERVICE APPLICATION. 

QWhen the equipment charged equal to the brake pipe, what 
will be the result of a gradual brake pipe reduction? 

A.—This will reduce the pressure on the top or brake pipe side 
of the release and equalizing pistons below that on the pressure cham¬ 
ber side below the piston, creating a difference in pressure on the 
two sides of the pistons. 

Q.—How great a brake pipe reduction is necessary to move the 
control valve to service position? 

A.—About 7 or 8 pounds. 

Q.—Explain what takes place when the release piston moves. 

A.—The first movement of the piston closes the feed groove i, 
also closes.the opening from chamber B to the under side of the equal¬ 
izing check valve, and its continued movement moves the release 
graduating and slide valve to what is called preliminary service 
position, in which the piston comes in contact with the release 
graduating spring sleeve. 

Q.—Explain what takes place in preliminary service position. 

A.—The movement of the release slide valve to preliminary 
service position closes the application chamber exhaust port, closes 
the port leading from chamber F to the atmosphere and opens a 
port connecting chamber E and the pressure chamber with chamber 
F, thus balancing the pressure on both sides of the small end of the 
equalizing piston. Chamber E is now connected with chamber D 
past the equalizing check valve. 

Q.—What effect has the balancing of the pressure in chambers 
F and D? 

A.—This allows the equalizing piston to move. 

• Q.—Explain what takes place when the equalizing piston and 
slide valve first move. 

A.—A connection is made from the emergency reservoir to cham¬ 
ber D through the equalizing slide valve and graduating valve. This 
is called secondary service position. 

Q.—What is the object of this connection? 

A.—It allows air from the emergency reservoir to restore the 
drop of pressure in chambers D and E caused by the movement of 
the equalizing and release pistons. 

Q.—How far does the equalizing piston and valve travel? 

A.—Until the piston comes in contact with the equalizing gradu¬ 
ating spring sleeve, when the valve is said to be in service position. 

Q.—Explain what takes place in this position. 

A.—In this position the service port is open through the equalizing 
slide valve and its seat to the application chamber, allowing pressure 
chamber air, which is ever present in chamber D, to flow past the 
end of the equalizing graduating valve to the application chamber. 



312 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. —How long will the pressure chamber air continue to flow to 
the application chamber? 

A.—Until the pressure in the pressure chamber becomes a shade 
less than that in the brake pipe, when the equalizing piston will 
move the graduating valve back just far enough to close the service 
port, or to lap position. 

Q.—Explain what takes place when air is admitted to the appli¬ 
cation chamber. 

A.—Pressure forming in the application chamber and chamber C 
in front of the application piston causes the application piston to 
move to application position, carrying with it the application and 
exhaust valve. 

Q.—What takes place when these parts move to application 
position? 

A.—Service reservoir air, which is always present in chamber N, 
will now be free to flow to chamber 0 and the service brake cylinder, 
also from the service brake cylinder port through the emergency 
slide valve to chamber M at the right of the application piston, thus 
bringing brake cylinder pressure on the right side of the application 
piston. 

Q.—How long will the air continue to flow from the service 
reservoir to the service brake cylinder? 

A.—Until the pressure in the service brake cylinder and chamber 
M equalizes with that in the application chamber. 

Q.—When these pressures equalize what takes place? 

A.—The application piston and valve will be moved to lap posi¬ 
tion, thus putting practically the same pressure in the service brake 
cylinder as that in the application chamber. 

Q.—What moves the application piston and valve to lap position? 

A.—The application piston spring at the back of the piston stem. 

Q.—What effect will service brake cylinder leakage have on the 
application, portion when the brake is applied in service? 

A.—Any reduction of service brake cylinder pressure on account 
of leakage will be felt in chamber M at the right of the application 
piston, and when the pressure on this side of the piston‘becomes 
somewhat less than that on the application chamber side, the piston 
will move to application position, carrying with it the application 
valve, opening the application port, allowing a further flow of service 
reservoir air to the brake cylinder, and when the pressure is restored 
will again return to lap position. 

Q.—When making a service application how much of a brake pipe 
reduction is required to set the brake in full, using 110 pounds brake 
pipe pressure? 

A.—Twenty-four pounds. 

Q.—At what pressure does the pressure chamber and application 
chamber equalize? 

A.—At 86 pounds. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


313 


Q.—With 86 pounds in the application chamber, what pressure 
will be had in the brake cylinder? 

A.—The same as in the application chamber, 86 pounds. 

Q.—If the brake pipe pressure is reduced below the point at 
which the pressure chamber and application chamber equalize, 
what will result? 

A.—The equalizing piston will move the full length of its cylinder, 
compressing the equalizing graduating spring and carrying with it 
its slide valve. The control valve is now said to be in over-reduction 
position. 

Q.—What takes place in this position of the control valve? 

A.—The service port in the equalizing slide valve is now connected 
to a port leading to the reduction limiting chamber, allowing pressure 
chamber air to flow to this chamber. 

Q.—Does the release piston and valve move at this time? 

A.—No. 

Q.—What prevents their movement? 

A.—The release graduating spring offers a much greater resistance 
to the movement of this piston than does the equalizing graduating 
spring to the equalizing piston, and as the pressure chamber air is 
now expanding to the reduction limiting chamber there will not be a 
sufficient differential created to move the release piston from service 
position. 

Q.—At what pressure will the pressure chamber and the reduction 
limiting chamber equalize? 

A.—At about 55 pounds from an original pressure of 110 pounds. 

Q.—How much of a reduction is necessary starting with the 
equipment charged to 110 pounds to cause the control valve to move 
to over-reduction position, and for the pressure chamber to equalize 
with the reduction limiting chamber? 

A.—About 55 pounds, or one-half the original pressure. 

Q.—If a still further reduction of brake pipe pressure is made 
what will result? 

A.—As there are no further means of continuing the reduction 
of the pressure chamber pressure, a differential pressure will be 
created on the two sides of the release piston, causing it to move 
the full travel of its cylinder, compressing the release graduating 
spring and carrying with it the release slide valve to emergency 
position, thus causing a full emergency application of the brake 
the same as though a sudden brake pipe reduction had been made. 

Q.—What is the purpose of the reduction limiting chamber? 

A.—It furnishes a limited space in which the pressure chamber air 
expands whenever an over-reduction of brake pipe pressure is made. 

Q.—The above questions refer to full service and over-reduction 
positions; is it to be understood from this that a partial service 
application can not be made? 

A.—No; with the “PC” equipment the brake may be graduated 
the same as with the triple valve. 



314 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


RELEASING THE BRAKE. 


Q.—How is this brake released? 

A.—By an increase of brake pipe pressure. 

Q.—Explain how this is done. 

A.—When the pressure in chambers B and A increases above 
that in the pressure chamber, the equalizing piston will be the 
first to move toward release position, and it moves down until the 
lower end of its stem comes in contact with the equalizing stop 
spring, which momentarily stops it in its movement, and now the 
control valve is said to be in preliminary release position. 

Q.—What takes place in preliminary release position? 

A.—Chamber E and the pressure chamber are connected through 
the reduction limiting chamber exhaust with the atmosphere. 

Q.—What is the object of connecting the pressure chamber with 
the atmosphere at this time? 

A.—This causes a drop in pressure in chamber E below that in 
chamber B and the brake pipe, thus insuring the movement of the 
release piston and release slide valve to release position. 

Q.—What takes place when the release piston and release, slide 
valve move to release position? 

A.—In this position, chamber F below the equalizing piston is 
connected through a port in the release slide valve, with the emer¬ 
gency piston exhaust port, dropping the pressure below the small 
end of the piston, causing a movement of this piston to its full release 
position. 

Q.—With both pistons and their slide valves in release position, 
what takes place? 

A.—When the release slide valve moves to release position, it 
connects the application chamber port with the application chamber 
exhaust, allowing the air to escape from this chamber and chamber C 
in front of the application piston. The air being exhausted from the 
left of the application piston, the service brake cylinder pressure 
on the right of the piston moves it to the left or release position, 
creating an opening through the exhaust valve to the service brake 
cylinder exhaust port and atmosphere, releasing the brake. 

Q.—With the graduated release feature cut in, is there a direct 
opening from the application chamber to the atmosphere, when the 
control valve is in release position? 

A.—Yes, but this opening is under the control of the release 
graduating valve. 

Q.—WRh the graduated release feature cut out, does the release 
graduating valve control this opening? 

A—No, it does not. 

Q.—With both pistons in release as above stated, to what is the 
emergency reservoir connected? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


315 


A.—To chamber G above the charging valve, also to chamber E 
and the pressure chamber, through the direct graduated release cap. 

Q.—How will the pressure in the pressure chamber and chamber 
E be affected by this connection? 

A.—This will cause a prompt rise of pressure in these chambers. 

Q.—If after making a service application of the brake the brake 
pipe pressure is only partially restored, what effect will it have on 
the release? 

A.—The air coming from the emergency reservoir to chamber E 
and the pressure chamber will raise the pressure in chamber E above 
that in chamber B, and the release piston and release graduating 
valve will be moved up just far enough to close the port leading to 
the emergency reservoir, also the application chamber exhaust port. 
The closing of the application chamber exhaust retains a pressure 
in this chamber, and when the pressure in chamber M (service brake 
cylinder pressure) becomes somewhat less than that retained in the 
application chamber, the application piston and its valves will move 
back to lap position, retaining part of the service brake cylinder 
pressure, thus obtaining a graduated release of the brake. 

Q.—How many graduations of the release may be made? 

A.—Graduated release may be obtained each time the brake pipe 
pressure is increased until its pressure is restored to within about 
five pounds of the maximum pressure carried. 

Q.—When air is first admitted in the recharge of the brake pipe, 
will the service reservoir be recharged? 

A.—No, as now the service reservoir charging valve will be in 
its lower position, closing the port leading to the service reservoir; 
thus allowing the air coming to the brake pipe to cause a prompt rise 
of its pressure for the prompt release of all brakes. This feature is 
especially useful on long trains. 

Q.—When will the charging valve rise, and the service reservoir 
be recharged? 

A.—Not until the pressure chamber.has been recharged to within 
about five pounds of the pressure in the emergency reservoir. 

Q.—When the service reservoir charging valve lifts, where will 
the air come from for the recharge of the service reservoir? 

A.—From the brake pipe, through chamber D, and from the emer¬ 
gency reservoir. 

Q.—Explain how the air is released from the application chamber 
when the direct and graduated release cap is in direct release position. 

A.—When the release piston and its slide valve moves to release 
position there is a direct connection through the release slide valve 
and direct and graduated release cap to the application chamber 
exhaust and the atmosphere; thus giving a direct release of the air 
in the application chamber and a straight-away release of the brake. 

Q—In direct release, does air from the emergency reservoir 
assist in the recharge of the pressure chamber and chamber E? 



316 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—No, the port through which the emergency reservoir air 
flowed to chamber E and the pressure chamber is closed when the 
direct and graduated release cap is in direct release position. 

Q.—With the emergency reservoir air cut off, where does the air 
come from for the recharge of the pressure chamber and chamber E ? 

A.—From the brake pipe, through the feed groove I to chamber E 
and from this chamber to the equalizing slide valve, and through a 
port in this valve to a port in its seat, to the pressure chamber. 

Q.—How is the operation of the control valve affected, in the re¬ 
lease of the brake, by the emergency reservoir air being cut off from 
the pressure chamber and chamber El 

A.—With the emergency reservoir air cut off, the pressure in 
chamber E and the pressure chamber can rise no faster than that in 
chamber B and the brake pipe; therefore, when the release piston 
and slide valve and graduating valve once move to release position, 
they will remain there until the brake is fully released, which means 
a direct release of the brake. 


EMERGENCY APPLICATION. 

Q.—How is an emergency application of the brake obtained with 
the “PC” equipment? 

A.—By a sudden reduction of brake pipe pressure; that is, when¬ 
ever the brake pipe pressure is being reduced faster than the pressure 
chamber air can reduce itself to the application chamber or to the 
reduction limiting chamber, a differential pressure will be created on 
the equalizing and release pistons, and cause them to move the 
extreme length of their chambers, or to emergency position. 

Q.—Can an emergency application be had in any other way than 
by a sudden reduction of brake pipe pressure? 

A.—Yes; whenever the brake pipe pressure is reduced below the 
point at which the pressure chamber and reduction limiting chamber 
equalize the brake will apply in quick action, even though the reduc¬ 
tion is made gradually. 

Q.—With the equalizing and release pistons in emergency position, 
what takes place? 

A.—In this position chamber E is connected to the chamber 
under the quick action closing valve, which allows air from chamber 
E to flow under this valve, raising it from its seat. 

Q.—When the quick action valve is raised from its seat where 
can air from chamber E flow to? 

A.—To chamber W on top of the quick action piston. 

Q.—What effect will this pressure in chamber W have on the 
quick action piston? 

A.—It will cause the piston to move down, unseating the quick 
action valve, thereby creating an opening from the brake pipe to 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


317 


the atmosphere, through the quick action exhaust port, causing a 
local reduction of brake pipe pressure, which will cause the control 
valve or triple valve on the following car to move to emergency 
position. 

Q.—To what is chamber P above the emergency piston now 
connected? 

A.—To the emergency piston exhaust port. 

Q.—Explain what takes place when chamber P is connected to 
the exhaust. 

A.—The emergency reservoir pressure in chamber R will force 
the emergency piston and its slide valve upward to emergency 
position. 

Q.—What takes place when the emergency valve is moved to its 
upper position? 

A.—The emergency reservoir is now connected to the emergency 
brake cylinder past the end of the slide valve. 

Q.—What other connection has the emergency reservoir at this 
time? 

A.—The emergency reservoir is also connected with chamber E 
and through this chamber to the application chamber and chamber 
C in front of the application piston. 

Q.—How is the application piston affected by the pressure form¬ 
ing in chamber C? 

A.—The piston and its valves are moved to application position, 
closing the service brake cylinder exhaust, and at the same time 
opening the application port, allowing service reservoir air to flow 
to the service brake cylinder. 

Q.—What other connection is there to the service brake cylinder 
port? 

A.—This port is also connected with chamber R in the emergency 
piston chamber, and through this chamber with the emergency 
reservoir and brake cylinder, thus allowing an equalization of pres¬ 
sure in both cylinders and reservoirs. 

Q.—To what is chamber D connected? 

A.—To chamber E and the reduction limiting chamber. From 
what has been said it will be seen that all reservoirs, chambers and 
brake cylinders are connected in emergency position, allowing an 
equalization of pressure in all the parts. 

Q.—In replying to a former question it was stated that the quick 
action vavle was opened by air coming from chamber E, and brake 
pipe air vented to the atmosphere for the purpose of causing a local 
reduction of brake pipe pressure; now how long will this valve 
remain open, and what will cause it to close? 

A.—It will remain open until the pressure in the emergency 
brake cylinder which is present in chamber T above the quick action 
closing valve equals that in chamber W, when the quick action 
closing valve spring will force the valve to its seat, stopping the flow 
of air to the top of the quick action piston. The air entrapped 



318 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


above the piston will be free to escape through port X, thus relieving 
the pressure above the piston, when the spring under the quick 
action valve will force it to its seat, closing the opening from the 
brake pipe to the atmosphere. 

Q.—How is the brake released after an emergency application? 

A.—By recharging the brake pipe pressure above that in chambers 
D and E, when the equalizing and release pistons will be moved to 
release position. 

Q.—To what pressure must the brake pipe be recharged for the 
release of the brake after an emergency application, when using 110 
pounds brake pipe pressure? 

A.—As all chambers are connected and pressure equalized at 86 
pounds, it will be seen that the brake pipe pressure must be restored 
to a point above 86 pounds before the brake will release, where a 
110-pound brake pipe pressure is used. However, where a 70-pound 
brake pipe pressure is used, the pressure of equalization is 54 pounds; 
therefore, when using this pressure the brake pipe pressure would 
have to be restored to a point above 54 pounds. 


METHOD OF OPERATION. 

Q.—When braking a train wholly or partially equipped with the 
“PC” equipment, how should the engineer handle the brake valve? 

A.—The same as when braking a train equipped wittuquick action 
triple valves, only keeping in mind that the initial brake pipe reduc¬ 
tion must be at least 7 or 8 pounds in order to move the cpntrol 
valve to application position. 

Q.—In a train with mixed brakes, that is, part “PC” and part 
triple valves, will not the brakes, on cars having triple valves, apply 
with less than a 7 or 8-pound reduction? 

A.—Yes. 

Q.—What effect will this' have on the slack action in the train? 

A.—This depends on the location of the cars in the train having 
triple valves; if at the head end, and a 4 or 5-pound brake pipe 
reduction is made, the brakes on the triple valve cars will apply, 
while those on the cars having the “PC” will not, therefore the slack 
will run in; whereas, if the triple valve cars are at the rear, and a 
similar application is made, the slack will run out. From this it 
will be seen that in order to avoid the running in or out of the slack, 
as the case may be, the initial reduction must be sufficiently heavy 
to set all brakes in the train. 

Q.—What other precaution is necessary? 

A.—Should avoid an over-reduction of brake pipe pressure, to 
a point below one-half of the pressure in the brake pipe, at the time 
the application was commenced. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


319 


Q.—If, when making a service reduction, the pressure is reduced 
below one-half, what will follow? 

A.—The brake will apply in quick action. 

Q.—After making a service application, how should the brake 
be released? 

A.—The same as on a train equipped with triple valves, when the 
control valve is cut into direct release; where graduated release is 
being used, the brake may be graduated off by raising the brake 
pipe pressure in steps. 

Q.—How is this brake cut out? 

A.—By closing the cut-out cock in the cross-over pipe and bleed¬ 
ing both service and emergency reservoirs. 

Q.—Is there any movement of the emergency cylinder piston, 
when a service application of the brake is made? 

A.—No; even though the cylinder levers are connected to the 
same truck pull rods, the emergency piston does not move. 

Q.—Why is this? 

A.—Because the crosshead of the emergency cylinder push rod 
is slotted, which allows the emergency cylinder lever to move with¬ 
out moving the emergency cylinder piston. 

Q.—Do both service and emergency cylinders point in the same 
direction? 

A.—The cylinders may be attached to the car, pointing in the 
same or opposite directions, depending on the construction of the 
underframing of the car. 



The No. 6 “ET” Locomotive 
Brake Equipment 

The No. 6 “ET” equipment, described herein, is a modification 
of the No. 5, to accomplish the same results by simpler means, as 
well as to embody certain additional operative advantages which 
railroad men suggested as valuable and desirable in a locomotive 
brake apparatus. The only difference in manipulation between 
No. 5 and No. 6 “ET” equipment is that on the second engine in 
double heading, the No. 6 brake valve handle remains in running 
position, as with the old standard G-6 brake valve, instead of in 
lap position, as with the No. 5 equipment. 


ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS. 

Fig. 1-A is a diagram of the No. 6 “ET” equipment, giving the 
necessary instructions for correctly piping up the equipment; 
Fig. 1-B is a similar diagram giving the designations of apparatus 
and piping as referred to in the following description: 


PARTS OF THE EQUIPMENT. 

1. The air pump to compress the air. 

2. The main reservoir, in which to store and cool the air, and 
collect water and dirt. 

3. A duplex pump governor to control the pump when the pres¬ 
sures are attained for which it is regulated. 

4. A distributing valve, and small double-chamber reservoir to 
which it is attached, placed on the locomotive to perform the func¬ 
tions of triple valves, auxiliary reservoirs, double check valves, 
high speed reducing valves, etc. 

5. Two brake valves, the automatic to operate locomotive and 
train brakes, and the independent to operate locomotive brakes only. 

6. A feed valve to regulate the brake pipe pressure. 

7. A reducing valve to reduce the pressure for the independent 
brake valve and for the air-signal system when used. 

8. Two duplex air gauges; one to indicate equalizing reservoir 
and main reservoir pressures, the other to indicate brake pipe and 
locomotive brake cylinder pressures. 

9. Driver, tender, and truck brake cylinders, cut-out cocks, air 
strainers, hose couplings, fittings, etc., incidental to the piping, for 
purposes readily understood. 



Fig. i=A. Piping Diagram of the No. 6 ET Equipment 


































































































































































































































































































































































































































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


323 


NAMES OF PIPING. 

Discharge pipe; connects the air compressor to the first main 
reservoir. 

Connecting pipe; connects the two main reservoirs. 

Main reservoir pipe; connects the second main reservoir to the 
automatic brake valve, distributing valve, feed valve, reducing 
valve, and compressor governor. 

* Feed valve pipe; connects the feed valve to the automatic'brake 
valve. 

* Excess pressure pipe; connects the feed valve pipe to the upper 
connection of the excess pressure head of the compressor governor. 

Excess pressure operating pipe; connects the automatic brake 
valve to the lower connection of the excess pressure head of the 
compressor governor. 

Reducing valve pipe; connects the reducing valve to the inde¬ 
pendent brake valve, and to the signal system, when used. 

Brake pipe; connects the automatic brake valve with the dis¬ 
tributing valve and all triple valves on the cars in the train. 

Brake cylinder pipe; connects the distributing valve with the 
driver, tender, and truck brake cylinders. 

Application cylinder pipe; connects the application cylinder of 
the distributing valve to the independent and automatic brake 
valves. 

Distributing valve release pipe; connects the application cylinder 
exhaust port of the distributing valve to the automatic brake valve 
through the independent brake valve. 


PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION. 

The principles governing the operation of it are just the same 
as those of previous automatic air brake equipments. The difference 
consists in the means for supplying the air pressure to the brake 
cylinders. Instead of a triple valve and auxiliary reservoir for each 
of the engine and tender equipments, the distributing valve is made 
to supply all brake cylinders. The distributing valve consists of 
two portions, called the equalizing portion and application portion. 
It is connected to a double-chamber reservoir , the two chambers of 


* Note—In some installations the H-6 brake valve is provided 
with a pipe bracket to which the feed valve is directly attached, thus 
eliminating the feed valve pipe. The excess pressure pipe connection 
is then made to a pipe tap provided for this purpose in the pipe 
bracket. 





324 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



APPLICATION 

CHAMBER. 


V 


TO INDEPENDENT AND 
AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVCS. 


PRESSURE CHAMBER. 


APPUCATIO 

CYLINDER 


TO INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE 


TO MAIN RESERVOIR. 


TO BRAKE PIPE 

i 


BArETt 

VALVE 


TO CVUNOEH5 


EXHAUST. 


Diagrammatic View of the Essential Parts of 
the Distributing Valve and Double- 
Chamber Reservoir 































































































































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


325 


which are called respectively the pressure chamber and the applica¬ 
tion chamber. The latter is ordinarily connected to the application 
portion of the distributing valve in such a way as to enlarge the 
volume of that part of it called the application cylinder. The con¬ 
nections between these parts, as well as their operation, may be 
compared with that of a miniature brake set —the equalizing portion 
representing the dummy triple valve; the pressure chamber, the 
dummy auxiliary reservoir; and the application portion (dummy 
cylinders) always having practically the same pressure in its cylin¬ 
der as that in the real brake cylinders. For convenience, compact¬ 
ness and security they are combined in one device. The equalizing 
portion (dummy triple) and pressure chamber (dummy auxiliary) 
are used in automatic application only; reductions of brake pipe 
pressure cause the equalizing valve to connect the pressure cham¬ 
ber (dummy auxiliary) to the dummy cylinder, allowing air to flow 
from the former to the latter. The upper slide valve connected to 
the piston rod of the application portion, admits air to the brake 
cylinders and is called the application valve, while the lower one 
releases the air from the brake cylinders and is called the exhaust 
valve. As the air admitted to the brake cylinders comes directly 
from the main reservoirs, the supply is practically unlimited. Any 
pressure in the dummy cylinder will force the application piston to 
close the exhaust valve, open the application valve and admit air 
from the main reservoirs to the locomotive brake cylinders until 
their pressure equals that in the dummy cylinder; any variation of 
this (dummy) cylinder pressure will be exactly duplicated in the 
locomotive brake cylinders, and the resulting pressure maintained, 
regardless of any brake cylinder leakage. The whole operation of 
this locomotive brake, therefore, consists in admitting and releasing 
air pressure into or out of the dummy cylinder, in independent ap¬ 
plications directly through the independent brake valve; in auto¬ 
matic applications, by means of the equalizing (dummy triple valve) 
portion and the air pressure stored in the pressure chamber (dummy 
auxiliary). 

The well-known principle embodied in the quick action triple 
valve, by which it gives a high braking power in emergency appli¬ 
cations, and a sufficiently lower one in full service applications, to 
provide a desired protection against wheel sliding, is embodied in 
the No. 6 distributing valve. This is accomplished by cutting off 
the application chamber from the application cylinder in all emer¬ 
gency applications. In such applications, the pressure chamber 
has to fill the small volume of the application cylinder only, thus 
giving a high equalization, and a correspondingly high brake cyl¬ 
inder pressure. In service applications, it must fill the same volume 
combined with that of the application chamber, thus giving a lower 
equalization and correspondingly lower brake cylinder pressure. 





FEED VALVE 


326 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


hi 

3 

< 

> 

o 

u 

u 

u. 


x 

i- 

> u 

; * 
2 < 

O a 

ptn 

to 2 

o ? 

“■5 

St 

1 « 

a 



















































































































































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


327 


THE H-G AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE. 


This brake valve, although modelled to a considerable extent 
upon the principles of previous valves, is necessarily different in 
detail, since it not only performs all the functions of such types but 
also those absolutely necessary to obtain all the desirable operating 
features of the No. 6 distributing valve. 

Figure shows two views of this valve, with the addition of a plan 
or top view of the rotary valve. The six positions of the brake valve 
handle are, beginning at the extreme left, release, running, holding, 
lap, service, and emergency. The names of the parts are as follows: 
2, bottom case; 3, rotary valve seat; 4, top case; 5, pipe bracket; 
6, rotary valve; 7, rotary valve key; 8, key washer; 9, handle; 10, 
handle latch spring; 11, handle latch; 12, handle latch screw; 13, 
handle nut; 14, handle lock nut; 15, equalizing piston; 16, equaliz¬ 
ing piston packing ring; 17, valve seat upper gasket; 18, valve seat 
lower gasket; 19, pipe bracket gasket; 20, small union nut; 21, brake 
valve tee; 22, small union swivel; 23, large union nut; 24, large union 
swivel; 25, bracket stud; 26, bracket stud nut; 27, bolt and nut; 
28, cap screw; 29, oil plug; 30, rotary valve spring; 31, service ex¬ 
haust fitting; 35, governor union stud. 

Referring to the rotary valve, a, j, and s are ports extending 
directly through it, the latter connecting with a groove in the face; 
/ and k are cavities in the valve face; o is the exhaust cavity; x and t 
are ports in the face of the valve connecting by cored passages with 
o; h is a port extending from the face over cavity k and connecting 
with exhaust cavity o; n is a groove in the face, having a small port 
which connects through a cavity in the valve with cavity k. Re¬ 
ferring to the ports in the rotary valve seat, d leads to the feed valve 
pipe; b and c lead to the brake pipe; g leads to chamber D; Ex is the 
exhaust opening leading out at the back of the valve; e is the pre¬ 
liminary exhaust port leading to chamber D; r is the warning port 
leading to the exhaust; p is the port leading to the pump governor; l 
leads to the distributing valve release pipe; u leads to the applica¬ 
tion cylinder pipe. 

In describing the operation of the brake valve, it will be more 
readily understood if the positions are taken up in the order in which 
they are most generally used, rather than their regular order, as 
mentioned previously. 

Charging and release position. —The purpose of this position is 
to provide a large and direct passage from the main reservoir to the 
brake pipe, to permit a rapid flow of air into the latter to (a) charge 
the train brake system; (b) quickly release and recharge the brakes, 
but (c) not release locomotive brakes, if they are applied. 

Air at main reservoir pressure flows through port a in the rotary 
valve and port b in the valve seat to the brake pipe. At the same 



328 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



The H=6 Automatic Brake Valve 


























































































































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


329 


time, port j in the rotary valve registers with equalizing port g in 
the valve seat, permitting air at main reservoir pressure to enter 
chamber D above the equalizing piston. 

If the handle were allowed to remain in this position, the brake 
system would be charged to main reservoir pressure. To avoid this, 
the handle must be moved to running or holding position. To pre¬ 
vent the engineer from forgetting this, a small port discharges feed 
valve pipe air to the atmosphere in release position. Cavity / in the 
rotary valve connects port d with warning port r in the seat and 
allows a small quantity of air to escape into the exhaust cavity Ex, * 
which makes sufficient noise to attract the engineer’s attention to 
the position in which the valve handle is standing. The small 
groove in the face of the rotary valve, which connects with port s, 
extends to port p in the valve seat, allowing main reservoir pres¬ 
sure to flow to the lower connection of the excess pressure head of 
the compressor governor. 



Rotary Valve, H-6 Automatic Brake Valve. 

Running position .—This is the proper position of the handle (a) 
when the brakes are charged and ready for use; (b) when the brakes 
are not being operated; and (c) to release the locomotive brakes. 
In this position, cavity / in the rotary valve connects ports b and d 
in the valve seat, affording a large, direct passage from the feed valve 
pipe to the brake pipe, so that the latter will charge up as rapidly 
as the feed valve can supply the air, but can not attain a pressure 
above that for which the feed valve is adjusted. Cavity k in the 
rotary valve connects ports c and g in the valve seat, so that cham¬ 
ber D and the equalizing reservoir charge uniformly with the brake 
pipe, keeping the pressure on the two sides of the equalizing piston 
equal. Port s in the rotary valve registers with port p in the valve 
seat, permitting air at main reservoir pressure, which is present at 
all times above the rotary valve, to pass to the lower connection 




330 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


of the excess pressure head of the compressor governor. Port h in 
the rotary valve registers with port l in the seat, connecting the 
distributing valve release pipe through the exhaust cavity Ex with 
the atmosphere. 

If the brake valve is in running position when uncharged cars 
are cut in, or if, after a heavy brake application and release, the 
handle of the automatic brake valve is returned to running position 
too soon, the governor will stop the compressors until the difference 
between the hands on gauge No. 1 is less than 20 pounds. The 
compressors stopping from this cause, calls the engineer's attention 
to the seriously wrong operation on his part, as running position 
results in delay in charging, and is liable to cause some brakes to 
stick. Release position should be used until all brakes are released - 
and nearly charged. 

Service position. —This position gives a gradual reduction of brake 
pipe pressure to cause a service application. Port h in the rotary 
valve registers with port e in the valve seat, allowing air from cham¬ 
ber D and the equalizing reservoir to escape to the atmosphere 
through cavities o in the rotary valve and Ex in the valve seat. 
Port e is restricted so as to make the pressure in the equalizing 
reservoir and chamber D fall gradually. 

As all other ports are closed, the fall of pressure in chamber D 
allows the brake pipe pressure under the equalizing piston to raise it, 
and unseat its valve, allowing brake pipe air to flow to the atmos¬ 
phere gradually through the opening marked BP Ex. When the 
pressure in chamber D is reduced the desired amount, the handle 
is moved to lap position, thus stopping any further reduction in that 
chamber. Air will continue to discharge from the brake pipe until 
its pressure has fallen to an amount a trifle less than that retained in 
chamber D; permitting the pressure in this chamber to force the 
piston downward gradually and stop the discharge of brake pipe air. 
It will be seen, therefore, that the amount of reduction in the equal¬ 
izing reservoir determines that in the brake pipe, regardless of the 
length of the train. 

The gradual reduction of brake pipe pressure is to prevent quick 
action, and the gradual stopping of this discharge is to prevent the 
pressure at the head end of the brake pipe being built up by the air 
flowing from the rear, which might cause some of the head brakes 
to “kick off." 

Lap position. —This position is used while holding the brakes ap¬ 
plied after a service application until it is desired either to make a 
further brake pipe reduction, or to release them. All ports are closed. 

Release position. —This position, which is used for releasing the 
train brakes after an application, without releasing the locomotive 
brakes, has already been described under Charging and Release. The 
air flowing from the main reservoir pipe connection through port a 
in the rotary valve and port b in the valve seat to the brake pipe, 
raises the pressure in the latter, thereby causing the triple valves 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


331 


and equalizing portion of the distributing valve to go to release po¬ 
sition, which releases the train brakes and recharges the auxiliary 
reservoirs and the pressure chamber of the distributing valve. When 
the brake pipe pressure has been increased sufficiently to cause this, 
the handle of the brake valve should be moved to either running or 
holding position; the former when it is desired to release the loco¬ 
motive brakes, and the latter when they are to be still held applied. 

Holding position.—' This position is so named because the locomotive 
brakes are held applied while the train brakes are being released and 
their auxiliary reservoirs recharged to feed valve pressure. All ports 
register as in running position, except port /, which is closed. 

Therefore, the only difference between running and holding po¬ 
sitions is that in the former the locomotive brakes are released, 
while in the latter they are held applied. 

Emergency position. —This position is used (a) when the most 
prompt and heavy application of the brakes is required, and (b) to 
prevent loss of main reservoir air and insure that the brakes remain 
applied in the event of a burst hose, a break in two, or the opening 
of a conductor’s valve. Port x in the rotary valve registers with 
port c in the valve seat, making a large and direct communication 
between the brake pipe and atmosphere through cavity o in the 
rotary valve and Ex in the valve seat. This direct passage makes 
a sudden and heavy discharge of brake pipe air, causing the triple 
valves and distributing valve to move to emergency position and 
give maximum braking power in the shortest possible time. 

In this position, main reservoir air flows to the application cylin¬ 
der through porty, which registers with a groove in the seat connect¬ 
ing with cavity k; thence through ports n in the valve and u in the 
seat, to the application cylinder pipe, thereby maintaining appli¬ 
cation cylinder pressure. 

At the same time port t in the rotary valve registers with port g 
in the seat, allowing the air in the equalizing reservoir to flow through 
the ports named to the exhaust o and atmosphere, thus reducing 
the pressure in the equalizing reservoir to zero during an emergency 
application of the brakes. 

Leather washer 8 prevents air in the rotary valve chamber from 
leaking past the rotary valve key to the atmosphere. Spring 30 
keeps the rotary valve key firmly pressed against washer 8 when 
no main reservoir pressure is present. The handle 9 contains latch 
11, which fits into notches in the quadrant of the top case, so located 
as to indicate the different positions of the brake valve handle. 
Handle latch spring 10 forces the latch against the quadrant with 
sufficient pressure to indicate each position. 

To remove the brake valve, close the cocks, and take off nuts 27. 
To take the valve proper apart, remove cap screws 28. 

The brake valve should be located so that the engineer can op¬ 
erate it conveniently from his usual position, while looking forward 
or back out of the side cab window. 



332 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


MANIPULATION AND TRAIN HANDLING. 


The following instructions are general, and must necessarily be 
supplemented to a limited extent to fully meet the varying local 
conditions on different railways. 

The instructions for manipulating the “ET” equipment are prac¬ 
tically the same as those given for the combined automatic and 
straight air brake; therefore, no radical departure from present 
methods of brake manipulation is required to get the desired results. 

The necessary instructions are briefly as follows: 

When not in use, carry the handles of both brake valves in running 
; position. 

To apply the brakes in service , move the handle of the automatic 
brake valve to the service position , making the required brake pipe 
reduction, then back to lap position, which is the one for holding 
the brakes applied. 

To release the train brakes, move the handle to the release po¬ 
sition and hold it there until all triple valves are in release posi¬ 
tion; if locomotive brakes are to be released at once, use running 
position; but if they are to be held for a time, move to holding po¬ 
sition, and then graduate, them off by short, successive movements 
between running and holding positions. With all freight trains, 
and especially long ones, both release and holding positions must, 
of course, be used, very much longer than with short trains, partic¬ 
ularly passenger. 

To apply the brakes in emergency, move the handle of the auto¬ 
matic brake valve quickly to emergency position and leave it there 
until the train stops or the danger is past. 

To make a smooth and accurate two-application passenger stop, 
make the first application sufficiently heavy to bring the speed of 
train down to about 15 miles per hour at a convenient distance from 
the stopping point, then release train brakes by moving the handle 
to release position, then the locomotive brakes by moving it to 
running position for two or three seconds before re-applying. A 
little experience with the “ETV equipment will enable the engineer 
to make smooth and accurate stops with muhh greater ease than 
was heretofore possible. 

When using the independent brake only, the handle of the auto¬ 
matic brake valve should be carried in running position. The in¬ 
dependent application may be released by moving the independent 
brake valve handle to running position. Independent release po¬ 
sition is for use only when the automatic brake valve handle is not 
in running position, as an example, when the engineer desires to re¬ 
lease the engine brakes independent of the train brakes. 

While handling long trains of cars, in road or switching service, 
the independent brake should be operated with care, to prevent 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


333 


damage to cars and lading, caused by running the slack in or out 
too hard. In cases of emergency arising while the independent 
brake is applied, apply the automatic brake instantly. The safety 
valve will restrict the brake cylinder pressure to the proper maxi¬ 
mum. 

The brakes on the locomotive and on the train should be alter¬ 
nated in heavy grade service, to prevent overheating of driving 
wheel tires and to assist the pressure retaining valves in holding 
the train while the auxiliary reservoirs are being recharged. This 
is done by keeping the locomotive brakes released by use of the 
independent brake valve when train brakes are applied, and apply¬ 
ing locomotive brakes just before train brakes are released, and 
then releasing locomotive brakes after train brakes are applied. 

When all brakes are applied automatically, to graduate off or 
entirely release the locomotive brakes only, use release position of 
the independent brake valve. 

The red hand of gauge No. 2 will show at all times the pressure 
in the locomotive brake cylinders, and this hand should be observed 
in brake manipulation. 

Release position of the independent brake valve will release the 
locomotive brakes under any and, all conditions . 

The train brakes should invariably be released before detach¬ 
ing the locomotive, holding with hand brakes where necessary. 
This is especially important on a grade, as there is otherwise no 
assurance that the car, cars, or train so detached will not start when 
the air brakes leak off, as they may in a short time where there is 
considerable leakage. 

The automatic brakes should never be used to hold a standing 
locomotive or a train, even where the locomotive is not detached, 
for longer than ten minutes, and not for so much time if the grade is 
very steep or the condition of the brakes is not good. The safest 
method is to hold with hand brakes only and keep the auxiliary 
reservoirs fully charged, so as to guard against a start from brakes 
leaking off, and to be ready to obtain any part of full braking power 
immediately on starting. 

The independent brake is a very important safety feature in 
this connection, as it will hold a locomotive with a leaky throttle 
or quite a heavy train on a fairly steep grade if, as the automatic 
brakes are released, the slack is prevented from running in or out 
(depending on the tendency of the grade), and giving the locomotive 
a start. To illustrate:—The best method to make a stop on a de¬ 
scending grade is to apply the independent brake heavily as the 
stop is being completed, thus bunching the train solidly; then, when 
stopped, place and leave the handle of the independent brake valve 
in application position; then release the automatic brakes and keep 
them charged. Should the independent brake be unable to pre¬ 
vent the train from starting, the automatic brakes will become 
sufficiently recharged to make an immediate stop; in such an event 




334 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


enough hand brakes should at once be applied as are necessary 
to assist the independent brake to hold the train. Many runaways 
and some serious wrecks have resulted through failure to comply with 
the foregoing instructions. \ 

When leaving the engine while doing work about it, or when it 
is standing at a coal chute or water plug, always leave the inde¬ 
pendent brake valve handle in application position. 

In case the automatic brakes are applied by a bursted hose, a 
break-in-two, or the use of a conductor’s valve, place the handle of 
the automatic brake valve in lap position. 

Where there are two or more locomotives in a train, the double¬ 
heading cock must be closed , and the handle of the automatic brake 
valve must be carried in running position on each except the one 
from which the brakes are being operated. 

Before leaving the roundhouse, the engineer should try the brakes 
with both brake valves, and see that no serious leaks exist. The 
pipes between the distributing valve and the brake valves should 
be absolutely tight. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
No. 6 “ET” LOCOMOTIVE 
BRAKE EQUIPMENT 

Q. 1.—What is the No. 6 “ET” equipment? 

A.—It is a brake equipment for engine and tender adapted to 
all kinds of engines and classes of service and combines the opera¬ 
tive features of the standard automatic, straight air, high speed, 
and double pressure control brake equipments, with many addi¬ 
tional features. 

Q. 2.—Is the operation of the train brakes affected by the “ET” 
equipment? 

A.—No; the operation of the train brakes is the same with this 
equipment as with former locomotive brake equipments. 

Q. 3.—What is meant by the term train brakes? 

A.—All brakes in the train except those upon the locomotive 
from which the brakes are being handled. 

Q. 4.—What is meant by the term locomotive brake? 

A.—The brake upon the engine and tender. 

Q. 5.—What new features of operation are obtainable with the 
“ET” equipment? 

A.—(a) Locomotive brake may be used with or independently 
of the train brakes, whether the train brakes are in use or not. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


335 


(b) Uniform and proper cylinder pressure is obtained, regardless 
of piston travel or leakage. 

(c) Cylinder pressure is automatically maintained, regardless of 
brake cylinder leakage. 

(d) Locomotive brake can be graduated on or off with either the 
automatic or the independent brake valves. 

(e) Increased flexibility in service operations, with increased 
braking power in emergency applications. 

(f) Brakes on second locomotive or helper can be released or 
applied without in any way interfering with, any other brakes in 
the train. 


PARTS OF THE EQUIPMENT. 


Q. 6.—Name the essential parts of the U ET” equipment. 

A.—1, air compressor; 2, main reservoir; 3, duplex pump governor; 
4, feed valve; 5, reducing valve; 6, automatic brake valve with equal¬ 
izing reservoir; 7, independent brake valve; 8, distributing valve 
and double reservoir; 9, two duplex air gauges; 10, combined air 
strainer and check valve; 11, choke fitting; 12, locomotive brake 
cylinders; also various cocks and fittings. 

Q. 7.—What special parts are sometimes used? 

A.—(a) Quick action cylinder cap for distributing valve. 

(b) Combined air strainer and check valve for train air signal 
system. 

(c) Choke fitting for truck brake. 

Q. 8.—What furnishes the compressed air for the brake system? 

A.—The air compressor. 

Q. 9.—What operates the air compressor? 

A.—Steam from the locomotive boiler. 

Q. 10.—After leaving the compressor, where does the air go? 

A.—Through the radiating pipes to the main reservoir. 

Q. 11.—What is the purpose of the radiating pipe? 

A.—To cool the air after leaving the compressor. 

Q. 12.—What is the purpose of the main reservoirs? 

A.—The main reservoirs provide a place for the storage of an 
abundant supply of compressed air for use in promptly releasing 
the brakes on the locomotive and train and for recharging the brake 
system. They also assist in cooling the compressed air and collect 
moisture, oil or other foreign matter, allowing only clean, dry air 
to pass to the brake system. 

Q. 13.—What controls the air pressure in the main reservoirs? 

A.—The duplex pump governor. 

Q. 14.—How does the pump governor control the main reservoir 
pressure? 

A.—It automatically regulates the supply of steam to the com¬ 
pressor so as to maintain normal pressure in the main reservoirs. 




336 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 15.—What connects the main reservoirs to the brake system? 

A.—The main reservoir pipe. 

Q. 16.—What provision is made for cutting off the main reser¬ 
voirs from the rest of the brake system? 

A.—A cock in the main reservoir pipe close to the main reser¬ 
voir, known as the “main reservoir cut-out cock.” 

Q. 17.—Where do the pipe branches lead to from the main reser¬ 
voir pipe? 

A.—(a) To the duplex pump governor. 

(b) To the main reservoir hand of the duplex air gauge. 

(c) To the automatic brake valve. 

(d) To the feed valve. 

(e) To the reducing valve. 

(f) To the distributing valve. 

(g) To the dead engine fixtures. 

(h) Other branches leading to various air-using devices on the 
locomotive, such as sanders, water scoop, etc. 

Q. 18.—What is the purpose of the feed valve? 

A.—To automatically maintain a predetermined pressure in the 
brake system, lower than that carried in the main reservoirs. 

Q. 19.—To what does the feed valve pipe connect? 

A.—To the automatic brake valve, and to the spring chamber 
of the excess pressure head of the duplex pump governor. 

Q. 20.—What is the purpose of the reducing valve? 

A.—It automatically reduces the air pressure from the main 
reservoirs to the proper pressure used with the independent brake 
and train air signal system. 

Q. 21.—What is the purpose of the automatic brake valve? 

A.—(a) To allow air to flow from the brake system for charging it. 

(b) To discharge air from the brake pipe to the atmosphere to 
apply the brakes. 

(c) To prevent the flow of air to or from the brake pipe when 
holding the brakes applied. 

(d) To hold applied or release the locomotive brake as desired 
while releasing train brakes. 

(e) To allow air to flow to the brake system for the purpose of 
releasing the brakes and recharging the system. 

(f) 'To control the flow of air to the diaphragm chamber of the 
excess pressure head of the duplex pump governor. 

(g) To allow main reservoir to flow to the application cylinder 
of the distributing valve in emergency position. 

Q. 22.—What is the purpose of the independent brake valve? 

A.—To operate the brakes on the engine and tender independent 
of the train brakes. 

Q. 23.—State briefly the purpose of the distributing valve. 

A.—(a) To automatically control the flow of air from the main 
reservoirs to the engine and tender brake cylinders when applying 
the brakes. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


337 


(b) To automatically maintain the brake cylinder pressure 
against leakage, keeping it constant, when holding the brake applied. 

(c) To automatically control the flow of air from the engine 
and tender brake cylinders to the atmosphere when releasing the 

brake. 

Q. 24.—What is the purpose of the locomotive brake cylinders? 

A.—The brake cylinder is that part of the air brake equipment 
in which the force contained in the compressed air is transformed 
into a mechanical force, which is transmitted through a suitable 
combination of rods and levers to the brake shoes and applies them 
to the wheels. 

H-6 AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. 25.—How many positions has the H-6 brake valve? 

A.—Six. 

Q. 26.—Name the positions, beginning at the left. 

A.— Release, running, holding, lap, service and emergency. 

Q. 27.—Name and describe the purpose of the pipe connections 
to the H-6 brake valve. 

A.—(a) Main reservoir pipe.—To connect the main reservoirs to 
the chamber above the rotary valve and permit a free flow of high 
pressure air into the brake pipe when the brake valve handle is in 
release position. 

(b) Feed valve pipe.—To connect the feed valve to the under side 
of the rotary valve. When the brake valve handle is in running 
position this pipe is open to the brake pipe, thus permitting the feed 
valve to maintain a constant brake pipe pressure below that in the 
main reservoirs. 

(c) Equalizing reservoir pipe.—This connects the chamber above 
the equalizing piston to the equalizing reservoir and the equalizing 
reservoir gauge. 

(d) Brake pipe.—To connect the distributing valve on the loco¬ 
motive and the triple valve on each car to the space underneath the 
equalizing discharge piston and the under side of rotary valve. 

(e) Governor pipe.—This makes a connection from the rotary 
valve chamber (main reservoir pressure) to the under side of the 
diaphragm of the excess pressure governor head when the brake 
valve handle is in either release, running or holding positions. 

(f) Distributing valve release pipe.—This makes a connection 
from the application chamber of the distributing valve (through 
the independent brake valve) to the under side of the automatic 
rotary valve, forming a connection to the atmosphere when both 
brake valve handles are in running position. 

(g) Application cylinder pipe.—This connects the under side of 
the automatic rotary valve directly to the application cylinder of the 
distributing valve. In emergency position of the brake valve handle 



338 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


this pipe is open to the chamber above the rotary valve (main reser¬ 
voir pressure) through the blow-down timing port. 

Q. 28.—When is release position used? 

A.—When it is desired to quickly charge the brake system and 
to release brakes on long trains. 

Q. 29.—Explain the flow of air through the automatic brake valve 
when in release position. 

A.—Air f^rom the main reservoirs flows directly to the brake pipe, 
equalizing reservoir and pump governor. Air from the feed valve 
flows through the warning port to the atmosphere. 

Q. 30.—When is running position used? 

A.—When running along the road to maintain a predetermined 
brake pipe pressure lower than that carried in the main reservoirs, 
to release the engine and tender brakes and also to release the brakes 
on short trains. 

Q. 31.—Explain the flow of air through the automatic brake valve 
when in running position. 

A.—(a) Air from the feed valve flows to the brake pipe and to 
the equalizing reservoir. 

(b) Air from the main reservoirs flows directly to the diaphragm 
chamber of the excess pressure head of the duplex pump governor. 

(c) Air from the distributing valve release pipe flows to the 
atmosphere. 

Q. 32.—When is holding position used? 

A.—When is it desired to hold the engine and tender brakes ap¬ 
plied by means of the automatic brake valve while releasing and 
recharging the train brakes. 

Q. 33.—Explain the flow of air through the automatic brake valve 
when in holding position. 

A.—The flow of air through the automatic brake valve when in 
holding position is the same as when in running position with one 
exception, namely, air from the distributing valve release pipe is 
prevented from flowing to the atmosphere. 

Q. 34.—When is lap position used? 

A.—When holding all the brakes applied after an automatic 
application. The handle should never be carried in this position 
except while bringing the train to a stop. 

Q. 35.—Is there any flow of air to the brake system through the 
automatic brake valve when in lap position? 

A.—No. 

Q. 36.—When is service position used? 

A.—When it is desired to make an automatic application of the 
brakes. 

Q- 37.—Explain fully the flow of air through the automatic 
brake valve when in service position. 

A.—In the automatic brake valve is a piston and valve called 
the equalizing discharge piston and valve, No. 15. The under side 
of this piston is directly connected to the brake pipe. The chamber 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


339 


D, above piston 15, is directly connected to the equalizing reservoir 
ER and to a small port e in the rotary valve seat called the pre¬ 
liminary exhaust port. In service position the preliminary exhaust 
port is open to the atmosphere through port h and exhaust cavity o 
in the rotary valve, thus allowing air from the equalizing reservoir 
and the chamber D above the equalizing discharge piston to flow to 
the atmosphere. This reduces the pressure on the top of the piston 
below the brake pipe pressure on the under side, which raises the 
equalizing discharge piston 15 and permits brake pipe air to flow 
to the atmosphere through the service exhaust fitting B. P. Ex. 
The flow of air from the equalizing reservoir to the atmosphere con¬ 
tinues until the brake valve handle is returned to lap position. 
This closes the preliminary exhaust port e, and prevents further 
decrease of pressure in the equalizing reservoir and chamber D. 
Air will continue to discharge from brake pipe until its pressure 
has been reduced slightly lower than that remaining in chamber D. 
The higher pressure on the top of the piston then forces the valve 
to its seat and prevents further reduction of brake pipe pressure. 

Q. 38.—What is the purpose of the service exhaust fitting? 

A.—To fix the maximum permissible opening from the brake pipe 
to the atmosphere when making a service application. 

Q. 39.—Is it important that all H-6 brake valves be provided with 
this fitting? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 40.—When is emergency position used? 

A.—When it is desired to make the shortest possible stop. In 
such case the handle should be moved to emergency position quickly 
and left there until the train stops. 

Q. 41.—Should this position be used at any other time? 

A.—Yes; this position should be used in case of an emergency 
application of the brakes from an unknown cause, such as the opening 
of a conductor’s valve, bursted hose, etc., in order to prevent loss 
of main reservoir pressure and to insure a full application of the 
brakes, and the handle should be left there until signal to release 
is given. 

Q. 42.—Why should emergency position be used as explained in 
the last answer instead of lap position? 

A.—To insure the brakes remaining applied under all circum¬ 
stances. 

Q. 43.—Explain the flow of air through the automatic brake 
valve when in emergency position. 

A.—A large and direct opening is made from the brake pipe to 
the atmosphere, through the rotary valve, causing a quick and heavy 
reduction of brake pipe pressure. At the same time the air in the 
equalizing reservoir escapes to the atmosphere through ports in the 
rotary valve. Connection is made from air at main reservoir pres¬ 
sure above the rotary valve through a restricted port in the rotary 
valve to the application cylinder pipe leading to the application 



340 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


cylinder of the distributing valve. This port is known as the blow¬ 
down timing port, and assists in building up and regulating appli¬ 
cation cylinder pressure during emergency application. 


S-6 INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. 44.—How many positions has the S-6 brake valve? 

A.—Five. 

Q. 45‘.—Name the positions, beginning at the left. 

A.— Release , running , lap, slow application and quick application. 

Q. 46.—Name and describe the purpose of the pipe connections 
to the S-6 brake valve. 

A.—(a) Reducing valve pipe.—This is the only source of air sup¬ 
ply to the valve and connects the reducing valve to the chamber 
above the rotary valve, and through the rotary valve when the 
independent brake valve handle is in either application position, 
to the application cylinder and chamber of the distributing valve 
and also through the warning port to the atmosphere when the 
handle is in release position. 

(b) Distributing valve release pipe to the distributing valve. —Con¬ 
nects the application chamber of the distributing valve to the under 
side of the independent brake valve. When the brake valve handle 
is in running position, this pipe is connected through ports in the 
seat and cavities in the rotary valve to the automatic brake valve. 

(c) Distributing valve release pipe to the automatic brake valve .— 
This pipe connects the under side of the rotary valve of the inde¬ 
pendent brake valve to the under side of the rotary valve of the 
automatic brake valve. With both brake valve handles in running 
position, free passage is made from the application chamber of the 
distributing valve to the atmosphere through this pipe. 

(d) Application cylinder pipe.—Connects the application cylinder 
to the under side of the rotary valve of the independent brake valve. 
When the handle is in either application position air from above the 
rotary valve flows through this pipe to the application cylinder and 
chamber of the distributing valve. When the handle is in release 
position this pipe is connected to the atmosphere through ports in 
the rotary valve and seat. 

Q. 47.—When is release position used? 

A.—Whenever it may be necessary to release the brake when the 
automatic brake valve handle is not in running position. 

Q- 48.—Explain the flow of air through the independent brake 
valve when in release position. 

A.—-Air from the application cylinder of the distributing valve 
flows direct through the application cylinder pipe and independent 
brake valve to the atmosphere. At the same time air from above 
the rotary valve (reducing valve pressure) flows through the rotary 
valve and warning port to the atmosphere. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


341 


Q. 49.—When is running position used? 

A.—When running along the road and to release the locomotive 
brake after an independent application, the automatic brake valve 
handle being in running position. 

Q. 50.—Explain the flow of air through the independent brake 
valve when in running position. (Automatic brake valve handle 
in running position.) 

A.—Air from the application chamb*er of the distributing valve 
flows through the distributing valve release pipe and independent 
brake valve, then through the automatic brake valve to the atmos¬ 
phere. 

Q. 51.—When is lap position used? 

A.—When holding the engine and tender brake applied after an 
independent application. 

Q. 52.—Is there any flow of air through the independent brake 
valve when in lap position? 

A.—No. 

Q. 53.—When is slow application position used? 

A.—When it is desired to apply the locomotive brakes lightly 
or gradually. 

Q. 54.—Explain the flow of air through the independent brake 
valve when in slow application position. 

A.—Air flows from the chamber above the rotary valve through 
the restricted service port and application cylinder pipe into the 
application cylinder and chamber of the distributing valve. 

Q. 55.—When is quick application position used? 

A.—When it is desired to apply the locomotive brakes promptly. 

Q. 56.—Explain the flow of air through the independent brake 
valve when in quick application position. 

A.—Air flows from above the rotary valve through a full open 
serv^e port in the rotary valve and the application cylinder pipe 
to the application cylinder and chamber of the distributing valve. 

Q. 57.—What prevents the independent brake valve handle 
from remaining in release position or in quick application position 
unless held there? 

A.—A return spring. 

Q. 58.—To what position does the return spring move the brake 
valve handle from release position? 

A.—To running position. 

Q. 59.—Why is this necessary? 

A.—To prevent the possibility of the independent brake valve 
handle being left in release position, which would cause the engine 
and tender brakes to release whenever an automatic application 
was made. 

Q. 60.—To what position does the return spring move the brake 
valve handle from quick application position? 

A,—To slow application position. 



342 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 61.—Why is the spring used for this purpose? 

A.—To act as a stop, guarding against a quick application when 
only a slow application is intended, and to return the handle from 
quick to slow application position. 

Q. 62.—Why is this latter necessary? 1 

A.—In order to limit the flow of air to the application cylinder 
when the independent brake is to be left applied. 


No. 6 DISTRIBUTING VALVE WITH PLAIN 
CYLINDER CAP. 

Q. 63.—What controls the brake cylinder pressure on the loco¬ 
motive with No. 6 “ET” equipment? 

A.—The distributing valve. 

Q. 64.—How does it do this? 

A.—It permits air to flow from the main reservoirs to the brake 
cylinders when applying the brake, from the cylinders to the atmos¬ 
phere when releasing the brake, and automatically maintains the 
pressure againkt leakage, keeping it constant, when holding the 
brake applied. 

Q. 65.—Is the amount of air flowing from the main reservoirs 
to the brake cylinders limited by the distributing valve? 

A.—Yes; the distributing valve acts as a reducing valve in sup¬ 
plying air from the main reservoirs to the locomotive brake cylinders. 

Q. 66.—Facing the distributing valve, name the two pipes on 
the right-hand side of the reservoir and state to what each one 
connects. 

A.—(a) The upper pipe on the right is the brake cylinder pipe. 
It connects the distributing valve to all the brake cylinders on the 
engine and tender. 

(b) The lower pipe on the right is the brake pipe branch pipe. 
It connects the distributing valve to the brake pipe. 

Q. 67.—Name the three pipes on the left-hand side of the reservoir 
and state to what each one connects. 

A.—(a) The upper pipe on the left is the supply pipe. It con¬ 
nects the distributing valve to the main reservoir pipe. 

(b) The intermediate pipe is the application cylinder pipe. It 
connects the distributing valve to both the automatic and inde¬ 
pendent brake valves. 

(c) The lower pipe is the release pipe, which connects the dis¬ 
tributing valve to the independent brake valve and through it to 
the automatic brake valve. 

Q. 68.—How many chambers has the distributing valve reservoir? 

A.—Two. 

Q. 69.—Name them. 

A.—Pressure chamber and application chamber. 








ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


343 


Q. 70.—How many pistons has the distributing valve? 

A.—Two. 

Q. 71.—Name them. 

A.—Application piston 10 and equalizing piston 26. 

Q. 72.—How many slide valves has the distributing valve? 

A.—Four. 

Q. 73.—Name them. 

A.—Application valve 5, exhaust valve 16, equalizing valve 31 
and graduating valve 28. 

Q. 74.—What valves are operated by the application piston? 

A.—The application valve and exhaust valve. 

Q. 75.—What valves are operated by the equalizing piston? 

A.—The equalizing valve and graduating valve. 

Q. 76.—With the brake released what pressures are present in 
the distributing valve? 

A.—Main reservoir pressure, brake pipe pressure and atmospheric 
pressure. 

Q. 77.—In what portion of the distributing valve is main reser¬ 
voir pressure? 

A.—In chamber a, above the application valve. 

Q. 78.—In what portion of the distributing valve is brake pipe 
pressure? 

A.—In the pressure chamber and in the chamber above the 
equalizing valve and graduating valve. 

Q. 79.—In what portion of the distributing valve is atmospheric 
pressure? 

A.—In chamber b above the exhaust valve 16 and on the right- 
hand side of the application piston 10; in chamber g on the left-hand 
side of the application piston (called the application cylinder), and 
in the application chamber and the ports and cavities connecting to 

them. 

Q. 80.—How is chamber a charged with air at main reservoir 
pressure? 

A.—Through the branch pipe leading from the main reservoir pipe 
to the connection marked MR on the distributing valve reservoir. 

Q. 81.—Describe the operation of the distributing valve parts 
when an independent application of the brake is made. 

A.—Air is admitted to the application cylinder g and the appli¬ 
cation chamber from the reducing valve through the independent 
brake valve and the intermediate pipe on the left (application 
chamber pipe). This pressure will force the application piston 10 
to the right, lapping exhaust ports d and e with exhaust valve 16, 
and compressing graduating spring 20 and open supply port b through 
the application valve 5 to the brake cylinder chamber b, which is 
connected to the right of the application piston, obtaining a brake 
cylinder pressure slightly exceeding that in the application cylinder, 
when it and the graduating spring 20 then moves the piston 10 and 
the application valve 5 back to lap position. The exhaust valve 16 



344 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


will remain lapped, as there is sufficient clearance between the 
shoulders of the piston stem and the exhaust valve to permit the 
application valve to return to lap without moving the exhaust valve. 
At the same time cavity s in the equalizing valve 31 registers with 
ports h and l in the seat, thus connecting the application cylinder 
port h to the safety valve. The equalizing piston and slide valve do 
not move during an independent application of the brake. 

Q. 82.—Describe the operation of the distributing valve parts 
when an independent release of the brake is made. 

A.—By a proper movement of the independent brake handle, 
air from the application cylinder g and the application chamber 
is allowed to flow to the atmosphere, which reduces the pressure 
in chamber g below that in chamber b, causing the application 
piston 10 to move to the left, carrying with it application valve 
5 and exhaust valve 16, until ports d and e are open past and through 
exhaust valve 16, permitting the air in the brake cylinders to flow 
through port c into chamber b, thence through ports d and e, to the 
exhaust and atmosphere. The equalizing piston and its valves do no 
move during an independent release of the brakes. 

Q. 83.—How is the pressure chamber charged with air at brake 
pipe pressure? 

A.—Through the branch pipe leading from the brake pipe to 
the connection marked BP on the distributing valve reservoir lead¬ 
ing into chamber p, then through feed groove v, around top of piston 
.26, into the chamber above the equalizing valve 31 and through 
port o to the pressure chamber, until the pressure on both sides of 
the piston is equal. 

Q. 84.—From where do the application cylinder and chamber 
receive their air? 

A.—From the reducing valve through the independent brake valve 
during independent applications, and from the pressure chamber 
during automatic service applications. 

Q. 85.—Describe the operation of the distributing valve parts 
when an automatic service application of the brake is made. 

A.—The brake pipe pressure in chamber p on the brake pipe 
side of equalizing piston 26 being reduced below that in the pres¬ 
sure chamber on the opposite side of the piston, results in piston 
26 being moved toward the right. The first movement of piston 
26 closes the feed groove v, and at the same time moves the grad¬ 
uating valve 28 until it opens the service port z in the equalizing 
valve and connects the safety valve ports r and s in equalizing 
valve through cavity t in the graduating valve. As the piston 
continues its movement, the “spider” on the end of the piston 
stem engages the slide valve 31, which is then moved to the right 
until the supply port 2 in the equalizing valve registers with the 
application cylinder port h and through cavity n in the equalizing 
valve with application chamber port w in the seat. This permits 
the air in the pressure chamber to expand into the application 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


345 


cylinder. At the same time the safety valve is connected to the 
application cylinder and application chamber by registering ports 
r and s in the equalizing valve with ports h and l in the seat and 
through the cavity t in the graduating valve. The amount of pres¬ 
sure obtained in the application cylinder and chamber depends 
upon the brake pipe reduction made. When the pressure in the 
pressure chamber is slightly reduced below that in the brake pipe, 
the piston and the graduating valve are forced to the left until 
the collar on the piston stem comes in contact with the equalizing 
valve. This position is known as ‘‘service lap.” In this position 
the graduating valve has lapped port z between the pressure cham¬ 
ber and the application cylinder and has also lapped the safety 
valve port l. The air that expanded into the application cylinder 
and chamber-will force the application piston 10 to the right, lapping 
the exhaust ports d and e with the exhaust valve 16, compressing 
graduating spring 20 and opening the supply port b through the ap¬ 
plication valve 5 to brake cylinder, as explained in answer to ques- 
ton 81. 

Q. 86.—Describe the operation of the distributing valve when 
the brake is released with the independent brake valve, after an 
automatic application. 

A.—With the independent brake valve handle in release posi¬ 
tion, air in application cylinder g and the application chamber 
flows direct to the atmosphere through the application cylinder 
pipe. This reduces the pressure in chamber g below that in cham¬ 
ber b, causing supply valve piston 10 to move to the left, carrying 
with it application valve 5 and exhaust valve 16 to release position, 
thus releasing the brake. 

Q. 87.—Do the equalizing parts of the distributing valve operate 
at this time? 

A.—No. 

Q. 88.—Describe the operation of the distributing valve parts 
when making an automatic release of the brakes. 

A.—The brake pipe pressure in chamber p on the brake pipe 
side of equalizing piston 26 being increased above that in the pres¬ 
sure chamber on the opposite side of the piston, results in the pis¬ 
ton being moved toward the left, carrying with it graduating valve 
28 and equalizing valve 31 to release position. In this position 
cavity k in equalizing valve 31 registers with ports w, h, and i in 
the seat. This allows air from the application cylinder g and the 
application chamber to flow through the ports mentioned to the dis¬ 
tributing valve release pipe IV and to the atmosphere. At the 
same time the reduction of pressure in chamber g below that in 
chamber b causes the supply piston 10 to move to the left, carrying 
with it exhaust valve 16 to release position, thus releasing the brake 
as described in answer to question 82. 

Q. 89—Describe the operation of the distributing valve parts 
when an automatic emergency application of the brake is made. 



346 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—Brake pipe pressure in chamber p on the brake pipe side of 
equalizing piston 26 is suddenly reduced below that in the pressure 
chamber on the opposite side of the piston. The considerable dif¬ 
ference in pressure thus created on the two sides of equalizing pis¬ 
ton 26 is sufficient to move it to its extreme position to the right, 
compressing graduating spring 46. In this position port h is open 
directly to the chamber above equalizing valve 31, past the end of 
the valve, so that air from the pressure chamber flows through port 
o, through the chamber above equalizing valve to port h and the 
application cylinder g. The application chamber port w is blanked 
by the equalizing valve 31 and the safety valve port / is connected 
through port r and restricted port q in valve 31 to port h of the ap¬ 
plication cylinder. The air that expanded into the application 
cylinder from the pressure chamber will force the application piston 
10 to the right, opening the application valve 5, as in service appli¬ 
cation, and obtaining cylinder pressure equal to that in the 
application cylinder, when the application valve will lap. 

Q. 90.—What brake cylinder pressure is obtained from a full 
automatic service application of the brake from a 70-pound brake 
pipe pressure? (Safety valve set at 68 pounds.) 

A.—Fifty pounds. 

Q. 91.—What brake cylinder pressure is obtained with and auto¬ 
matic emergency application from a 70-pound brake pipe pressure? 
(Safety valve set at 68 pounds.) 

A.—About seventy pounds. 

Q. 92.—How is the difference between service and emergency 
brake cylinder pressure obtained? 

A.—With all automatic service applications the pressure cham¬ 
ber is connected to both the application chamber and application 
cylinder, the relative volumes of which are such that the air in 
the pressure chamber at 70 pounds pressure will equalize with 
the combined volumes of the application chamber and cylinder at 
50 pounds pressure, which is, therefore, the maximum which can 
be obtained with an automatic service application. With all emer¬ 
gency applications the pressure chamber is not connected to the 
application chamber, but to the application cylinder only. The 
air in the pressure chamber then expands into the application cylin¬ 
der, equalizing at about 65 pounds from a 70-pound brake pipe 
pressure. During emergency application air is admitted through a 
small port in the automatic brake valve (called the blow-down 
timing port) and the application cylinder pipe to the application 
cylinder. The size of the blow-down timing port in the brake valve 
is proportioned to the restricted port in the equalizing valve lead¬ 
ing to the safety valve so as to give the proper time of blow-down 
of brake cylinder pressure. 

Q. 93.—Will piston travel or brake cylinder leakage affect the 
brake cylinder pressure on the engine and tender? 

A.—No. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


347 


Q. 94—How is a predetermined brake cylinder pressure obtained 
and maintained in the engine and tender brake cylinder regardless 
of piston travel and leakage? 

A.—As the brake cylinders receive their air from the main reser¬ 
voirs, they have practically an unlimited supply to draw from. 
The distributing valve and its reservoir volumes are constant, so 
that with a given brake pipe reduction a given application cylin¬ 
der pressure will be obtained (about 2% pounds application cylin¬ 
der and chamber pressure fpr every pound brake pipe reduction). 
The air that is admitted to the application cylinder forces the ap¬ 
plication piston and its valves to the right, closing the exhaust ports 
and allowing air from the main reservoir branch pipe to flow to the 
brake cylinders until brake cylinder pressure becomes equal to that 
in the application cylinder, regardless of what the piston travel is, 
the number of cylinders, or the amount of leakage. When this pres¬ 
sure had been obtained, if brake cylinder leakage exists, the drop in 
cylinder pressure will reduce the pressure in chamber b on the right 
of piston below that in application cylinder g on the opposite side 
of the piston. This will cause application piston to again move to 
the right, opening application valve 5 and allowing air to flow from 
the main reservoirs to the brake cylinders until the brake cylinder 
pressure again equalizes with that in the application cylinder, when 
the application piston and supply valve will move to lap position. 
This action will continue indefinitely until the brakes are released. 


SAFETY VALVE 

Q. 95.—What is the purpose of the safety valve? 

A.—To prevent abnormal brake cylinder pressure and to act as 
a high speed reducing valve for the locomotive brake cylinders. 

Q. 96.—To what is the safety valve connected? 

A.—To the application cylinder. 

Q. 97.—When is the safety valve connected to the application 
cylinder? 

A.—At all times except in automatic service lap position of the 
distributing valve. 

Q. 98—For what pressure is the safety valve adjusted? 

A.—Sixty-eight pounds, except when the locomotive is trans¬ 
ported light over the road, when it is ordinarily adjusted to 35 
pounds. 

Q. 99— How does the safety valve act as a high speed reducing 
valve? 

A.—When an automatic service application is made and the 
equalizing valve and graduating valve are in service position, the 
safety valve is connected to the application cylinder and chamber 
through large ports, and will, therefore, prevent the brake cylinder 



348 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


pressure rising above that for which the safety valve is adjusted. 
During emergency application the connection between the appli¬ 
cation cylinder and the safety valve is smaller than during service 
application, so that the flow of air from the application cylinder 
to the safety valve is restricted, which, in Conjunction with the 
blow-down timing port, regulates the time of blow-down of brake 
cylinder pressure. 


QUICK ACTION CYLINDER CAP 


Q. 100.—Where is the quick action cylinder cap located? 

A.—On the brake pipe end of the distributing valve, replacing 
the plain cylinder cap. 

Q. 101.—What is its purpose? 

A.—To vent brake pipe air into the locomotive brake cylinders 
when an emergency position of the brake is made. 

Q. 102.—Does it operate at any other time? 

A.—No. 

Q. 103.—Why is this cap used? 

A.—To assist in obtaining an emergency application of the brakes 
in the train when double heading. 

Q. 104.—Then the quick action cylinder cap performs the same- 
function in actuating quick action as a quick action triple valve on 
the tender with other types of locomotive brakes? 

A—Yes. 

Q. 105.—Does the air flowing to the brake cylinders through 
the quick action cylinder cap increase the brake cylinder pressure 
as is the case with the quick action triple valve? 

A.—No; as the brake cylinder pressure is governed by the pres¬ 
sure in the application cylinder of the distributing valve. 

Q. 106.—What advantage has this device over quick action 
triple valves on the tender? 

A.—It is less liable to cause undesired quick action than a triple 
valve, as it is much less sensitive. 

Q. 107.—Why is it possible to use a valve less sensitive to quick 
action than a triple valve? 

A.—As the quick action cylinder cap is always located close to 
the automatic brake valve being operated; when an emergency 
application is made, the quick action cylinder cap is subjected to 
a more rapid brake pipe reduction than is the case with a triple 
valve located at a considerable distance from the brake valve, and 
consequently need not be so sensitive in order to accomplish its 
purpose. 

Q. 108.—When the distributing valve is provided with a quick 
action cap, how should the automatic brake valve handle be op¬ 
erated? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


349 


A.—Exactly the same as when the distributing valve has plain 
cylinder cap. 

Q. 109.—Describe the operation of the quick action cylinder cap. 

A.—When the automatic brake valve handle is moved to emer¬ 
gency position, equalizing piston moves to the right, which move¬ 
ment causes the knob on the piston to strike the graduating stem 50, 
causing it to compress graduating spring 55, moving emergency 
valve 48 so as to open port j. Brake pipe pressure in chamber p 
then flows to chamber X, unseats check valve 53, and passes to the 
brake cylinders through port m in the cap and distributing valve 
body. 

Q. 110.—What duty does the check valve 53 perform? 

A.—When the brake cylinder and brake pipe pressures become 
equal, the check valve is forced to its seat by spring 54, thus pre¬ 
venting air in the brake cylinders from flowing back into the brake 
pipe. 

Q. 111.—What takes place when a release is made? 

A.—Piston 26 is moved back to release position, spring 55 forces 
graduating stem 50 and emergency valve 48 back to the position 
shown. 

Q. 112.—Are there any other differences in the operation of the 
distributing valve having this cap? 

A.—No; in all other respects the operation of the distributing 
valve is the same as described under the heading “No. 6 Distributing 
Valve With Plain Cylinder Cap.” 


THE B-6 FEED VALVE 

Q. 113.—How does the B-6 feed valve differ from that used with 
former automatic brake equipments? 

A.—The B-6 feed valve is made adjustable for either high or 
low brake pipe pressure and can easily be changed from one to the 
other. Otherwise, except for improvements in the mechanical de¬ 
sign of the valve, it is the same as that used with former equipments. 

Q. 114.—How is the change in adjustment accomplished? 

A.—The adjustment nut is provided with a hand wheel, having 
a lug, working between two adjustable stops on the body of the 
valve. These stops are adjusted for the high and low brake pipe 
pressure which it is desired to carry and the change of pressure 
from one to the other is accomplished by simply turning the hand 
wheel from one stop to the other. 

Q. 115.—Where is the feed valve located? 

A.—On a bracket interposed between the main reservoir and 
feed valve pipes. 

Q. 116.—Why is this bracket used? 

A.—To support the valve and permit it to be easily removed 
and replaced. 



350 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 117.—What are the essential working parts of the feed valve? 

A.—The supply valve and actuating piston, the regulating valve, 
diaphragm, regulating spring, and supply valve piston spring. 

Q. 118.—Explain the general arrangement of the feed valve? 

A.—The feed valve consists of two sets of parts designated as 
the supply parts and the regulating parts. The supply parts, 
which control the flow of air through the valve, consist of the supply 
valve 9, and its spring 10, supply valve piston 8, and supply valve 
spring piston 6. The regulating parts consist of the regulating valve 
12, regulating valve spring 13, diaphragm 14, diaphragm spindle 16, 
and regulating spring 17. 

Q. 119.—What is the normal position of this valve? 

A.—Closed. 

Q. 120.—Explain the duty of the various operative parts. 

A.—Supply valve 9 is for the purpose of opening and closing 
port c in its seat. Piston 8 is for the purpose of moving the supply 
valve 9. Spring 6 is for the purpose of moving the piston and closing 
the supply valve when the pressures have equalized on both sides 
of piston 8. 

Q. 121.—What are the duties of the regulating parts? 

A.—To control the action of the supply valve piston and sup¬ 
ply valve when opening and closing the aupply port c in the seat. 

Q. 122.—Explain the operation and flow of air through the feed 
valve when open. 

A.—Air entering through port a from the main reservoir is free 
to pass into the supply valve chamber B, causing the supply valve 
piston 8 to be moved to the left, compressing piston spring 6, by 
which movement the supply valve 9 uncovers port c in the valve seat, 
thereby permitting air to pass directly through ports c and dd to the 
feed valve pipe at the same time air is passing by the supply valve 
piston 8, which is not an airtight fit, to chamber G, thence through 
port hH by the regulating valve 12, and through port K to diaphragm 
chamber L, and on through ports edd to the feed valve pipe. 

Q. 123.—What will cause a valve to close and stop the flow of 
air from the main reservoir to feed valve pipe? 

A.—When the pressure in the feed valve pipe and chamber L 
slightly exceeds the tension of the regulating spring 17, the dia¬ 
phragm 14 will yield and allow regulating valve 12 to move to its 
seat, closing port K, and preventing the flow of air from chamber 
G. As the air continues to leak by supply valve piston 8, it will 
equalize the pressure on both sides of the piston and allow supply 
valve piston spring 6, which was previously compressed, to react 
and move the piston and supply valve, closing port c in the supply 
valve seat. 

Q. 124.—With the feed valve closed, and the pressure equal¬ 
ized on each side of the supply valve piston, what will cause it to 
open to supply the feed valve pipe when the pressure has been re¬ 
duced? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


351 


A.—Diaphragm chamber L is always in direct communication 
with the feed valve pipe; therefore, any reduction in feed valve 
pipe pressure reduces the pressure in chamber L, which allows the 
tension of the regulating spring to overcome the diminished air 
pressure in chamber L, and force the diaphragm 14 to the left. This 
unseats the regulating valve 12, permitting the accumulated air 
pressure in chamber G to escape to the feed valve pipe through 
ports hH and through port K, diaphragm chamber L and ports edd. 
The equilibrium of pressure on the two sides of the supply valve 
piston now being destroyed, the main reservoir pressure which is 
present in supply valve chamber B forces the supply valve piston 8 
to the left, which moves the supply valve 9 with it, opening port c 
and again permitting the air to pass to the feed valve pipe until the 
pressure has been restored to the proper amount. 

Q. 125.—The supply valve then maintains practically a wide 
open port until maximum pressure is obtained? 

A.—Yes; and when maximum pressure is obtained, the supply 
valve closes the supply port quickly. 


C-6 REDUCING VALVE 

Q. 126.—What is the difference in the construction and opera¬ 
tion of the C-6 reducing valve and the B-6 feed valve? 

A.—The only difference between it and the B-6 feed valve just 
described is in the convenience of adjustment, the C-6 reducing 
valve having the ordinary adjusting nut and cap nut used on former 
types of feed valves instead of the hand adjusting wheel used with 
the B-6 feed valve. It is called a “reducing valve” simply to dis¬ 
tinguish it from the B-6 feed valve. 


SF-4 PUMP GOVERNOR 

Q. 127.—Where is the SF-4 pump governor located? 

A.—In the pipe supplying steam to the air compressor. 

Q. 128.—Explain the general arrangement of the pump gov¬ 
ernor. 

A.—It consists of a standard steam portion, with Siamese fitting, 
and two diaphragm portions. 

Q. 129.—How are these diaphragm portions designated? 

A.—That having two pipe connections the excess pressure head 
and that having a single pipe connection the maximum pressure head. 

Q. 130.—What are the pipe connections of the governor? 

A.—B, to the boiler; P, the air compressor; MR, main reservoir; 
AB, the automatic brake valve; FVP, the feed valve pipe; W, waste 
pipe. 



352 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 131.—When does the excess pressure head govern the opera¬ 
tion of the air compressor? 

A.—At all times when the automatic brake valve handle is in 
release, running or holding positions. 

Q. 132.—When does the maximum pressure head govern the oper¬ 
ation of the air compressor? 

A.—During the time the automatic brake valve handle is in lap, 
service, or emergency positions. 

Q. 133.—Explain the flow of steam through the governor. 

A.—Steam enters at B, passes by steam valve 5 to the connec¬ 
tion P, and on to the air compressor. 

Q. 134.—With the automatic brake valve handle in release, 
running or holding position, what pressures act on the diaphragm 
28 of the excess pressure head? 

A.—Air from the main reservoir flows through the automatic 
brake valve to the connection marked ABV, to chamber d under 
diaphragm 28. Air from the feed valve pipe enters at connection 
FVP and flows to chamber / above diaphragm 28. In addition to 
this, regulating spring 27 also acts upon the upper side of the dia¬ 
phragm. 

Q. 135.—What is the adjustment of this spring? 

A.—About 20 pounds. 

Q. 136.—What total pressure is therefore acting upon the upper 
side of diaphragm 28? 

A.—Whatever pressure the feed valve pipe may have, plus the 
tension of the regulating spring 27. 

Q. 137.—What pressure in chamber d below diaphragm 28 will 
be required to overcome that acting on the upper side of the dia¬ 
phragm? 

A.—A pressure slightly higher than that in the feed valve pipe 
plus the spring pressure. For example, with a pressure of 70 pounds 
in the feed valve pipe, about 90 pounds pressure below diaphragm 
28 will be required to overcome that acting upon the upper side of 
the diaphragm. 

Q. 138.—How docs a variation in feed valve adjustment affect 
the governor? 

A.—When the feed valve adjustment is changed from one amount 
to another as where the locomotive is used alternately in high speed 
brake and ordinary service, the excess pressure head of the governor 
automatically changes the main reservoir pressure so as to maintain 
the same excess pressure (20 pounds). 

Q. 139.—Why is this of advantage? 

A.—Because it insures that the main reservoir pressure will 
always be 20 pounds higher than that of the feed valve pipe. 

Q. 140.—Explain the operation of the governor when main 
reservoir pressure in chamber d below diaphragm 28 becomes slightly 
higher than that acting on top of the diaphragm. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


353 


A—Diaphragm 28 will rise, unseat its pin valve 33, and allow 
air to flow to chamber b above the governor piston 6, forcing the 
latter down, compressing piston spring 9 and restricting the flow 
of steam past steam valve 5 to a point where the compressor will 
just supply the leakage in brake system. 

Q- 141.—How long will the flow of steam through the governor 
be restricted in this manner? 

A.—Until main reservoir pressure in diaphragm chamber d be¬ 
comes reduced slightly below the combined spring and air pressure 
in chamber / above the diaphragm, which will then force diaphragm 
down, seating its pin valve. 

Q. 142.—How does this affect the flow of steam through the 
governor? 

A.—As chamber b is always open to the atmosphere through 
the small vent port c, the air pressure in chamber b above the gov¬ 
ernor piston 6 will then escape to the atmosphere and allow piston 
spring 9 and the steam pressure below valve 5 to raise it and the gov¬ 
ernor piston 6. 

Q. 143.—With the automatic brake valve handle in release , 
running or holding position, does the maximum pressure head 
operate? 

A.—No; as during this time its diaphragm pin valve remains 
seated. 

Q. 144.—To what is chamber a in the maximum pressure head 
always connected? 

A.—To the main reservoir. 

Q. 145.—When does the maximum pressure head of the governor 
control the operation of the compressor? 

A.—When the automatic brake valve handle is in lap, service or 
emergency position, or when the main reservoir cut-out cock is closed. 

Q. 146.—With the automatic brake valve handle in lap, service 
or emergency position, or when the main reservoir cut-out cock is 
closed, what pressures act on the diaphragm 20 of the maximum 
pressure head? 

A.—Main reservoir pressure which flows directly to chamber a 
on the under side of diaphragm 20 and the pressure of regulating 
spring 19 on the upper side. 

Q. 147.—What is the adjustment of spring 19? 

A.—Spring 19 is adjusted to the maximum pressure which is 
desired in the main reservoirs. 

Q. 148.—Explain the operation of the governor when main 
reservoir pressure in chamber a exceeds the tension of spring 19. 

A.—When main reservoir pressure in chamber a slightly exceeds 
the adjustment of spring 19, diaphragm 20 will rise, unseat its pin 
valve 33, and allow air to flow into chamber b above the governor 
piston, forcing it down, compressing its spring 9 and restricting the 
flow of steam past steam valve 5 to a point where the compressor 
will just supply the leakage in brake system. 



354 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 149.—How long will the flow of steam through the governor 
be restricted in this manner? 

A.—When main reservoir pressure in chamber a becomes slightly 
reduced, the spring 19 forces diaphragm 20 down, seating its pin 
valve. As chamber b is always open to the atmosphere through the 
small vent port c, the pressure in chamber b above the governor 
piston 6 will then escape to the atmosphere and allow the piston 
spring 9 and steam pressure below valve 5 to raise the valve and 
governor piston to the position shown. 

Q. 150.—Is the maximum pressure head of the governor in any 
way controlled by the automatic brake valve? 

A.—No; as the chamber a below the diaphragm is in no way con¬ 
nected to the brake valve. 

Q. 151.—With the automatic brake valve handle in lap, service 
or emergency positions or when the main reservoir cut-out cock is 
closed, why does not the excess pressure head operate instead of 
the maximum pressure head? 

A.—Because under these conditions, communication from the 
main reservoir to chamber d is cut off by the brake valve and at the 
same time connection from the feed valve pipe to chamber / above 
diaphragm 28 still remains open, so that the combined air and spring 
pressure on top of the diaphragm holds the pin valve to its seat, 
rendering the excess pressure head inoperative. 

Q. 152.—Under ordinary running conditions, why is only a moder¬ 
ate excess pressure desirable? 

A.—Because most of the time the automatic brake valve handle 
is in running position (keeping the brakes charged), but little excess 
pressure is needed and the governor regulates the main reservoir 
pressure to about 20 pounds above the brake pipe pressure, thus 
relieving the compressor of unnecessary work. 

Q. 153.—When an application of the brakes is made, why is the 
higher excess pressure of advantage? 

A.—To insure a prompt release of the brakes and recharge of 
the system. 


DEAD ENGINE FIXTURES. 


Q. 154.—What are the parts composing the dead engine fixtures? 

A.—A %-inch pipe connecting the brake pipe and main reservoir 
pipe, a combined strainer and check valve with choke fitting, and a 
^s-inch cut-out cock. 

Q. 155.—What is the purpose of the “dead engine” feature of 
the “ET” equipment? 

A.—To enable the compressor on a “live” engine to charge the 
main reservoir on a “dead” engine, so that the brake on the dead 
engine may be operated with the other brakes in the train. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


355 


Q. 156.—How is this done? 

A.—Air from the main reservoir of the live engine passes through 
the brake pipe and dead engine fixtures to the main reservoirs of 
the dead engine. 

Q. 157.—When is this apparatus used? 

A.—Only when the air compressor on the locomotive is in¬ 
operative. 

Q. 158.—Should the cut-out cock always be closed except when 
the compressor is inoperative? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 159.—Describe the flow of air through the combined strainer 
and check valve. 

A.—With the cut-out open, air from the brake pipe enters at 
BP, passes through the curled hair strainer, lifts check valve 4, held 
to its seat by a strong spring 2, passes through the choke bushing, 
and out at MR to the main reservoir pipe. 

Q. 160.—Why is the “strong” spring 2 used in this valve? 

A.—This spring over the check valve insures the valve seating 
and keeps the main reservoir pressure somewhat lower than the brake 
pipe pressure, yet assures ample pressure to operate the locomotive 
brakes. 

Q. 161.—What is the object of the choke fitting? 

A.—It prevents a sudden drop in brake pipe pressure and the 
application of the brakes in the train, as might otherwise occur with 
uncharged main reservoirs cut into a charged brake pipe or if for any 
reason the main reservoir pressure was lower than the brake pipe 
pressure. 

Q. 162.—How can the maximum brake cylinder pressure be regu¬ 
lated on a dead engine? 

A.—By the adjustment of the safety valve on the distributing 
valve. 

Q. 163.—Can the brake on a dead engine be controlled with the 
independent brake valve the same as on a live engine? 

A.—Yes, if it becomes necessary. 

Q. 164.—When the dead engine feature is used, in what position 
should the automatic and independent brake valve handles be 
carried? 

A.— Running position. 

Q. 165.—What should be the position of the double heading cock? 

A.—Closed. 

Q. 166.—Is it sometimes desirable to keep the braking power of 
a locomotive below the standard? 

A.—Yes; when there is no water in the boiler. 

Q. 167.—How is this done? 

A.—By adjusting the safety valve on the distributing valve to 
the maximum brake cylinder pressure which is desired in the loco¬ 
motive brake cylinders. 



356. 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


AIR GAUGES. 


Q. 168.—How many and what type of gauges are used in con¬ 
nection with the “ET” equipment? 

A—Two duplex gauges, designated: No. 1, large duplex air gauge; 
No. 2, small duplex air gauge. (See Figs. 1-A and 1-B.) 

Q. 169.—What pressures are indicated by gauge No. 1? 

A.—Red hand, main reservoir pressure; black hand, equalizing 
reservoir pressure. 

Q. 170.—What pressures are indicated by gauge No. 2? 

A.—Red hand, brake cylinder pressure; black hand, brake pipe 
pressure. 

Q. 171.—Which gauge hand shows the amount of reduction being 
made during a service application of the brakes? 

A.—Black hand, gauge No. 1. 

Q. 172.—Why, then, is the black hand of gauge No. 2 necessary? 

A.—To show brake pipe pressure when engine is second in double 
heading or a helper. 

Q. 173.—What pressure is indicated by the red hand of gauge 
No. 2 when operating the automatic or independent brake valve? 

A.—Brake cylinder pressure. 


CUT-OUT COCKS. 

Q. 174.—What provision is made for cutting off the main reser¬ 
voirs from the brake system? 

A.—The main reservoir cut-out cock in the main reservoir pipe. 

Q. 175.—What takes place when this cock is closed? 

A.—The flow of air from the main reservoirs is cut off and the air 
in the brake system back of it is exhausted to the atmosphere. 

Q. 176.—When this cock is closed can air flow from the main 
reservoirs to any part of the system? 

A.—Yes; to the maximum pressure head of the pump governor. 

Q. 177.—Why is this necessary? 

A.—To provide for the automatic control of the compressor when 
the cut-out cock is temporarily closed. 

Q. 178.—What provision is made for cutting out the driver brake? 

A.—A %-inch cut-out cock located in the pipe leading from the 
distributing valve to the driver brake cylinders. 

Q. 179.—What provision is made for cutting out the tender brake? 

A.—A %-inch cut-out cock located in the pipe between the dis¬ 
tributing valve and the hose connection leading to the tender brake 
cylinder. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


357 


Q. 180.—What difference is there between this cock and the 
%-inch cocks generally used? 

A.—It has a choke fitting. 

Q. 181.—Why is this choke fitting used? 

A.—To prevent a loss of driver and truck brake cylinder pressure 
in the event of a hose or tender brake cylinder pipe bursting. 

Q. 182.—Is there another cock with choke fitting sometimes used 
in connection with this apparatus? 

A.—Yes; when a truck brake is used a K-inch cock is located in 
the pipe leading from the distributing valve to the truck brake 
cylinder with choke fitting. 

Q. 183.—For what purpose is the %-inch cut-out cock in the 
main reservoir supply pipe to the distributing valve? 

A.—To cut off the supply of air from the main reservoirs to the 
distributing valve to permit of inspection and repairs. 

Q. 184.—For what purpose is the 1-inch double heading cock 
underneath the brake valve? 

A.—To cut off the flow from the automatic brake valve to the 
brake pipe or vice versa. 

Q. 185.—What is the purpose of the brake pipe air strainer? 

A.—To prevent foreign matter entering the distributing valve, 
which might seriously interfere with its proper operation. 


AIR SIGNAL SYSTEM. 

Q. 186.—From what source is the supply of air to the signal system 
obtained with the “ET” equipment? 

A.—From the reducing valve pipe between the reducing valve 
and the independent brake valve, as shown in Figs. 1-A and 1-B. 

Q. 187.—Why is this supply taken from the reducing valve pipe? 

A.—That the one reducing valve may govern the pressure for 
both the independent brake valve and the signal system. 

Q. 188—What device is interposed between the reducing valve 
pipe and the air signal pipe? 

A.—A combined strainer and check valve. 

Q. 189.—Why is the strainer necessary? 

A.—To protect the check valve and signal system from foreign 
matter. 

Q. 190.—Why is the check valve employed? 

A.—To prevent a back flow of air from the signal pipe to the 
reducing valve pipe. 

Q. 191.—In what way does this combined strainer and check 
valve differ from that used with the dead engine fixtures? 

A.—Only in the tension of the check valve spring. 



358 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


GENERAL OPERATION OF THE No. 6 EQUIPMENT. 


Note.—Details of construction and operation of the various 
devices will be found under their respective headings. 

Q. 192.—What is the proper position of the brake valve handles 
and cut-out cocks before starting the compressor? 

A.—The automatic and independent brake valve handles in 
running position all cut-out cocks must be open, except the ^-inch 
cut-out cock in the dead engine connection and the angle and stop 
cocks at the front and rear end of the locomotive. 

Q. 193.—Explain the charging of the “ET” equipment. 

A.—While the compressor is operating, the main reservoir pressure 
continues to rise until it reaches the point for which the governor 
is adjusted. The governor then automatically stops the compressor. 
From the main reservoirs air flows through the main reservoir pipe 
to the chamber above the application valve of the distributing valve. 
It also flows to the feed valve which reduces the pressure of the air 
to that carried in the brake pipe. The air at this reduced pressure 
flows through the automatic brake valve to the brake pipe and 
thence through the branch pipe and distributing valve to the pressure 
chamber, charging it up to brake pipe pressure. Air also flows from 
the main reservoirs through the reducing valve to the independent 
brake valve and air signal system. 

Q. 194.—What must be done to make an automatic service appli¬ 
cation of the brake? 

A.—Move the automatic brake valve handle to service position. 

Q. 195.—How does this apply the brake? 

A.—It starts a reduction of brake pipe pressure which causes 
the distributing valve to operate so as to allow air to flow from the 
main reservoirs into the brake cylinders. 

Q. 196.—How is the application of the brake limited to any 
desired cylinder pressure? 

A—By returning the automatic brake valve handle to lap 
position. 

Q. 197.—What must be done to make an emergency application 
of the brakes? 

A.—Move the automatic brake valve handle to emergency position. 

Q. 198—How does an emergency application of the brake differ 
from a service application? 

A.—Brake pipe reduction takes place more rapidly, brake cylinder 
pressure rises more quickly and a higher brake cylinder pressure is 
obained than in service applications. 

Q. 199.—In what position should the automatic brake valve 
handle be placed to release the locomotive brake? 

A.— Running position. • 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


359 


Q. 200.—Is there any position besides running position in which 
the locomotive brake can be released by the use of the automatic 
brake valve? 

A.—No. 

Q- 201—Can the locomotive brake be applied otherwise than by 
using the automatic brake valve? 

A.—Yes; by the independent brake valve. 

Q. 202.—In what position should the independent brake valve 
handle be placed to apply the locomotive brakes? 

A.— Application position. 

Q. 203.—How does this apply the brake? 

A.—It allows air to flow from the reducing valve through the 
independent brake valve to the distributing valve, causing it to 
operate and allow air to flow from the main reservoirs into the brake 
cylinders at a reduced pressure. 

Q. 204.—Is the operation of the train brakes affected in any way 
by the independent application of the locomotive brakes? 

A.—No. 

Q. 205.—How is the independent application of the locomotive 
brake limited to any desired cylinder pressure? 

A.—By returning the independent brake valve handle to lap 
position. 

Q. 206.—How can the locomotive brake be released by the in¬ 
dependent brake valve? 

A.—(a) If the automatic brake valve handle is in running posi¬ 
tion, move the independent brake valve handle to running position. 

(b) If the automatic brake handle is not in running position, the 
independent brake valve handle must be moved to release position. 

Q. 207.—Can the locomotive brake be released without in any 
way interfering with the train brakes under any and all conditions? 

A.—Yes; by placing the independent brake valve handle in 
release position. 

TESTING AND OPERATING THE “ET” EQUIPMENT. 
TESTING LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE. 

Q. 208.—Preparatory to making a test of the brake, what should 
be done? 

A.—Blow out the brake pipe and signal pipe by opening and 
closing quickly a number of times the angle and stop cocks, both 
at the pilot and rear of the tender. 

Q. 209.—Why is this done? 

A.—To remove scale and other foreign matter that may be in 
the brake and signal pipes. 

Q. 210.—What observations should the engineer make before 
taking the engine to the train? 




360 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—He should observe by the gauges that the proper pressures 
are present in different parts of the system. This will show that 
the regulating devices (governors, feed valves, etc.) are properly 
adjusted. He should also observe that the brake is in proper con¬ 
dition generally. 

Q. 211.—What test should then be made? 

A.—The brake should be applied and released with both the 
automatic and independent brake valves, to determine if the brake 
is in proper operative condition. 


MANIPULATION OF LOCOMOTIVE AND 
TRAIN BRAKES. 

Q. 212.—What is the proper position of the automatic and in¬ 
dependent brake valve handles when not being operated? 

A.— Running position. 

Q. 213.—After attaching the engine to the train, in what position 
should the automatic brake valve be carried while charging the 
train brakes? 

A.— Release position. 

Q. 214.—How long should the brake valve handle be left in this 
position? 

A.—Until the brake pipe system is charged to the pressure to 
be carried. 

Q. 215.—How should the automatic brake valve be handled when 
testing the brakes? 

A.—A full service application of the brakes should be made and 
the handle then moved to lap position. 

Q. 216.—How should the brakes be released? 

A.—Place the brake valve handle in release position for the 
proper length of time, then return it to running position, leaving 
it there. 

Q. 217.-—If the brakes apply in emergency from an unknown 
cause, while the train is running, what should be done? 

A.—Move automatic brake valve handle quickly to emergency 
position and leave it there until train stops. 

Q. 218.—Why is this done? 

A.—To insure the brakes remaining applied and to prevent loss 
of main reservoir pressure. 

Q. 219.—What must be done in the event of sudden danger? 

A.—Move the automatic brake valve handle quickly to emer¬ 
gency position and leave it there until the train stops and the danger 
is past. 

Q. 220.—With brakes applied in emergency, would anything 
be gained by moving the independent brake valve handle to ap¬ 
plication position? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


361 


A.—No. Because in an application of this kind the application 
cylinder pressure is higher than the maximum pressure obtainable 
with the independent brake. 

Q. 221.—If, in making a stop, the driving wheels slide, can they 
be released? 

A.—Yes; by placing the independent brake valve handle in 
release position and holding it there until the wheels again revolve, 
reapplying the brakes, if desired, with this brake valve. 

Q. 222.—In the event of releasing and reapplying the locomo¬ 
tive brake in this manner, in what position should the independent 
brake valve handle be left after the application is made? 

A .—Running position. 

Q. 223.—Why? 

A.—Because if left in any other position, the locomotive brake 
can not be released by the automatic brake valve. 

Q. 224.—Does the releasing and reapplying of the engine and 
tender brakes with the independent brake valve in this way have 
any effect on the train brakes? 

A.—No; as the operation of the independent brake valve does 
not interfere with the train brakes. 

Q. 225.—In making a service application, how should the auto¬ 
matic brake valve be handled? 

A.—The same as with the older types of brake valves. 

Q. 226.—In making the first release of a two-application stop, 
how should the brake valve be handled? 

A.—(a) With short passenger trains, release the brakes by moving 
the brake valve handle to running position a sufficient length of time to 
start the locomotive and train brakes releasing, then to lap position. 

(b) With the long passenger trains the brake valve handle should 
be moved to release position for about three seconds to start the 
train brakes releasing, then to running position to partly release 
the locomotive brake, then to lap. 

Q. 227.—In making the final release of a two-application stop, 
how should the automatic brake valve be handled? 

A.—(a) With short passenger trains, release the brakes just be¬ 
fore coming to a stop, by moving the brake valve handle to running 
position and leaving it there. 

(b) With long passenger trains, the brakes should be held ap¬ 
plied until the train stops. 

Q. 228.—In making a release after a one-application stop, how 
should the brake valve be handled? 

A.—The same as a.final release of a two-application stop, as just 

explained. 

Q. 229.—Why is it necessary to move the automatic brake valve 
handle promptly to running position after going to release in releas¬ 
ing the brakes? 

A.—Because, with the brake valve in release position, the lo¬ 
comotive brake is held applied. 



362 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 230.—What is the only position of the automatic brake valve 
handle which will permit the release of both the locomotive and 
train brakes together? 

A.— Running position. 

Q. 231.—Is there any other position besides running position, 
which will release train brakes? 

A.—Yes; release position and holding position. 

Q. 232.—Is there any other than running position in which the 
locomotive brake can be released by the automatic brake valve? 

A.—No. 

Q. 233.—Can the locomotive brake always be released by plac¬ 
ing the automatic brake valve handle in running position? 

A.—No. 

Q. 234.—Why? 

A.—Because, if the independent brake valve handle is not in 
running position, the locomotive brake can not be released by the 
automatic brake valve. 

Q. 235.—If the driving wheels pick up and slide while making a 
stop, what should be done? 

A.—Release with the independent brake valve. 

Q. 236.—In handling a light locomotive, which brake valve 
should be used? 

A.—The independent brake valve. 

Q. 237.—For a gradual application of the locomotive brake, how 
should the independent brake valve be used? 

A.—Place the brake valve handle in slow application position until 
the brake is sufficiently applied; then return it to lap position. 

Q. 238.—How operated if a quick application of the locomotive 
brake is desired? 

A.—Place the independent brake handle in quick application 
position until the brake is sufficiently applied, then return it to lap 
position. 

Q. 239.—Should the independent brake valve be used in com¬ 
pleting a train stop? 

A.—No. 

Q. 240.—Why? 

A.—Because, to apply the locomotive brake with the train brakes 
released, will cause slack to run in and produce shocks. 

Q. 241.—In case of emergency, should the independent brake 
valve be used on a light locomotive? 

A.—No; in all cases of emergency, move the automatic brake 
valve handle to emergency position. 

Q. 242.—Why? 

A.—Because a considerably higher brake cylinder pressure is 
obtained than would be possible with the use of the independent 
brake valve. 

Q. 243.—How can the locomotive brake always be released, re¬ 
gardless of the position either brake handle may be in? 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


363 


A.—By placing the independent brake valve handle in release 
position. 

Q. 244.—How can the locomotive brake be held applied while 
releasing the train brakes? 

A.—By moving the automatic brake valve handle to either re¬ 
lease or holding positions. 

Q. 245.—Can this be done in any otRer way? 

A.—Yes; by placing the independent brake valve handle in lap 
position. 

Q. 246.—Why should not the independent brake valve be used 
for this purpose? 

A.—First, because it is better to use the automatic brake valve 
alone instead of in conjunction with the independent brake valve. 
Second, because if the independent brake valve is used for this 
purpose, it may be left in lap position by mistake and the proper 
operation of the brakes by the automatic brake valve interfered with. 

Q. 247.—Why should the automatic brake valve handle never be 
left in lap position except while bringing the train to a stop? 

A.—Because, if the handle is felt in lap position when the brakes 
are not applied, brake pipe leakage may materially reduce the brake 
pipe and auxiliary reservoir pressures, so that full braking power 
can not be obtained and because the driver brakes are likely to ap¬ 
ply, as the outlet from the application chamber is closed. 

Q. 248.—If, after a brake application, the automatic brake valve 
handle is moved to release position and returned to lap position, 
what will be the result? 

A.—The locomotive brake will remain applied. 

Q. 249.—What is the advantage of having the locomotive brake 
remain applied under these conditions? 

A.—It would serve as a warning in case of neglect to move the 
handle to the proper position. 

Q. 250.—Would anything be gained by moving the automatic 
brake valve handle to release position for a short time just before 
making an application of the brakes? 

A.—No; this should never be done. 

Q. 251.—Why? 

A.—Because by placing the automatic brake valve handle in re¬ 
lease position the brake pipe will be charged higher than the pres¬ 
sure in the auxiliary reservoirs; consequently, the brakes can not 
be applied until after this difference in pressure has been drawn off. 

FREIGHT BRAKING. 

Q. 252.—What feature of the No. 6 “ET” equipment is of par¬ 
ticular advantage in handling trains on long, descending grades? 

A.—The ability to handle the locomotive brake with or entirely 
independent of the train brakes. 



364 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 253.—What is gained by this? 

A.—The locomotive and train brakes can be alternated without 
interfering with each other. 

Q. 254.—With all the brakes applied, can the locomotive brake 
be released without releasing the train brakes? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 255.—How can this be done? 

A.—By placing the handle of the independent brake valve in 
release position, holding it there until the brake is released. 

Q. 256.—After releasing in this manner, where should the handle 
of the independent brake valve be placed? 

A —Running position. 

Q. 257.—If it is then desired to release the train brakes and re¬ 
charge the reservoirs, and reapply the locomotive brakes, in order 
to assist the retaining valves, in holding the train, how can this be 
accomplished? 

A.—Place the independent brake valve handle in application 
position until the desired locomotive brake cylinder pressure is 
obtained, then return it to running position, then move the auto¬ 
matic brake valve handle to release position and leave it there until 
the train is charged. 

Q. 258.—What is the maximum pressure obtainable in the brake 
pipe under these conditions? 

A.—As the excess pressure head of the duplex governor will be 
in control, the maximum pressure obtainable will be twenty pounds 
above that ordinarily carried in the brake pipe. 

Q. 259.—When reapplying the train brakes, how can excessive 
locomotive brake cylinder pressure be prevented? 

A.—By partially releasing the locomotive brake with the inde¬ 
pendent brake valve before reapplying the train brakes. 

Q. 260.—How can the overheating of driving wheel tires be pre¬ 
vented? 

A.—By either holding the independent brake valve handle in 
release position when making an automatic application or by releas¬ 
ing immediately with the independent brake valve after the auto¬ 
matic application. 

Q. 261.—When releasing the brakes on a freight train when in 
motion, should the automatic brake valve be handled in the same 
manner as with passenger trains? 

A.—No; the brake valve handle should be moved to release posi¬ 
tion and allowed to remain there for a period of time, according to 
the length of the train, but not to exceed twenty seconds. 

Q. 262.—Why should this be done? 

A.—To insure a proper release of the train brakes and hold the 
locomotive brake applied, thus preventing the slack of the train 
running out. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


365 


Q. 263.—In making releases on long trains, after brake valve 
handle has been returned to running position, should it again be 
moved to release position for an instant? 

A.—Yes; after being in running position for about three seconds. 

Q. 264.—Why? 

A.—Because in making such a release some of the head brakes 
may have been overcharged and may reapply. 


BROKEN PIPES. 

Q. 265.—What would be the result if the brake pipe branch to 
the distributing valve broke off? 

A.—The locomotive and train brakes would apply. 

Q. 266.—What should be done if this happens on the road? 

A.—Plug the end leading from the brake pipe; release the loco¬ 
motive brake by placing the independent brake valve handle in 
release position and proceed. 

Q. 267.—Would it be possible to use the locomotive brake in this 
case? 

A.—Yes; with the independent brake valve, always using release 
position to release the brake. 

Q. 268.—What would be the result if any of the pipe connections 
between the distributing valve and the brake cylinders broke off? 

A.—It would permit a constant escape of air when the brake is 
applied, and may cause the release of one or more of the locomo¬ 
tive brake cylinders, depending on where the break occurs. 

Q. 269.—What should be done in a case of this kind? 

A.—If the pipe can not be repaired, close the cut-out cock in the 
pipe leading to the broken pipe. If breakage occurs next to the 
distributing valve reservoir, close the tmt-out cock in the distribut¬ 
ing valve supply pipe. 

Q. 270.—What would be the effect if the supply pipe to the dis¬ 
tributing valve broke off? 

A.—It would permit main reservoir pressure to escape and pre ¬ 
vent the use of the locomotive brake. 

Q. 271.—What should be done? 

A.—If repairs can not be made to the pipe, the cut-out cock in 
the supply pipe should be closed, or the pipe plugged. 

Q. 272.—What would be the effect if the application cylinder pipe 
to the distributing valve broke off? 

A.—It would be impossible to apply the locomotive brake. 

Q. 273.—What should be done? 

A.—The connection to the distributing valve should be plugged 
and the brake could then be applied, but with the automatic brake 
valve only. 




366 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 274.—With this opening plugged and the brake automatically 
applied, can it be released with the independent brake valve? 

A.—No. It can only be released by placing the automatic brake 
valve handle in running position. 

Q. 275.—If the release pipe to the distributing valve breaks off, 
what would be the effect? 

A.—It would cut out the holding feature of the automatic brake 
valve. 

Q. 276.—With this pipe broken off, would it interfere with the 
independent operation of the brake? 

A.—Yes; if an independent application were made and the equal¬ 
izing parts of the distributing valve were in release position, it would 
allow the independent brake to release when the independent valve 
was moved to lap position. 

Q. 277.—With this pipe broken off and the brakes automatically 
applied, can they be released with the independent brake valve? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 278.—Should any delay be occasioned by the breaking off of 
this pipe? 

A.—No. Proceed and operate the brake with the automatic 
brake valve, but without attempting to use the holding feature. 

Q. 279.—What would be the effect if the pipe connection to the 
spring chamber of the excess pressure head of the pump governor 
broke off? 

A.—The compressor would not operate when the main reservoir 
pressure was about 40 pounds or oyer. 

Q. 280.—What should be done in this case? 

A.—Plug the broken pipe and place a blind gasket in the pipe 
leading to the chamber below the diaphragm of the excess pressure 
head. 

Q. 281.—What should be done if the pipe connection leading to the 
chamber below the diaphragm of the excess pressure head breaks off? 

A.—Plug the broken pipe and proceed. 

Q. 282.—With the lower pipe to the excess pressure head plugged 
or with both pipes plugged, what would control the compressor? 

A.—The maximum pressure head. 

Q. 283.—What should be done in the event of the pipe connection 
to the maximum pressure head breaking off? 

A.—Plug the pipe. 

Q. 284.—What would control the compressor? 

A.—The excess pressure head. 

Q. 285.—In such a case, would the excess pressure head control 
the compressor at all times? 

A.—No; only with the automatic brake valve handle in release, 
running, or holding positions. 

Q. 286.—What would happen if the handle were left in lap, service, 
or emergency positions or it became necessary to close the main 
reservoir cut-out cock for any length of time? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


367 


A.—The governor then being out of commission, the compressor 
will continue to run until air pressure and steam pressure become 
approximately equal. 

Q. 287. What precaution should be taken with the governor 
out of commission in this way? 

A.—Compressor should be throttled so that too high a main 
reservoir pressure could not be obtained and in case of main reservoir 
cock being closed compressor should be shut off. 

Q. 288.—What should be done if the equalizing reservoir pipe 
breaks off? 

A.—Plug the equalizing reservoir pipe to the brake valve and the 
service exhaust opening. The brakes should then be applied in 
service by a careful use of the emergency position. 

Q. 289.—Why should extreme care be used when operating the 
brake valve in this manner? 

A.—To avoid causing quick action and to prevent the head brakes 
“kicking” off when returning to lap position. 


ROUNDHOUSE INSPECTOR’S TEST. 

GENERAL. 

Q. 290.—What are the objects of these tests? 

A.—To determine the condition of the detail parts of the “ET” 
equipment. 

Q. 291.—What should be done by the roundhouse air brake 
inspector when testing the brakes preparatory to turning out the 
engine on the road? 

A.—The following cocks must be closed: The drain cocks in the 
main reservoirs, the brake pipe angle cocks and the signal pipe cut¬ 
out cocks at each end of the locomotive, and the ^-inch cut-out 
cock in the dead engine pipe. 

The following cocks must be opened: Main reservoir cut-out 
cock, distributing valve cut-out cock, the double-heading cock and 
cut-out cocks in the brake cylinder pipes. 

Both the automatic and independent brake valve handles should 
be in running position before starting the compressor. 

Q. 292.—When the locomotive brake system has become fully 
charged what should first be done? 

A.—Blow out the brake pipe and signal pipe by opening and 
closing quickly a number of times the angle and stop cocks, both at 
the pilot and rear of the tender. 

Q. 293.—Why is this done? 

A.—To remove scale and other foreign matter that may be in 
the brake and signal pipes. 

Q. 294.—What pressure should there be in the brake pipe and 
distributing valve before testing the brake? 



368 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—The standard brake pipe pressure for the service in which 
the locomotive is to be used. 

Q. 295.—What are the parts that should be tested first? 

A.—The air gauges. 

Q. 296.—What method should be employed to test the air gauges? 

A.—Use a test gauge that is known to be correct. This gauge 
should be coupled to the front or to the rear brake pipe hose; then 
with system charged and automatic brake valve in release position, 
note if main reservoir, equalizing reservoir and brake pipe pressures 
as indicated by the air gauges correspond with the pressure indicated 
on the test gauge. 

Q. 297.—How should the brake cylinder gauge be tested? 

A.—Connect the test gauge to the brake cylinder, make a brake 
application, and see that the brake cylinder gaugq registers with 
the test gauge. 

Q. 298.—What test should follow the gauge test? 

A.—A test of the pump governor. 

Q. 299.—How should this test be made? 

A.—Place the automatic brake valve handle in running position. 
In this position main reservoir pressure should register 20 pounds 
higher than that in the brake pipe. Then place the handle in lap 
position. In this position the main reservoir pressure should register 
the maximum pressure standard on the road for the class of service 
to which the engine is assigned. 

Q. 300.—What should next be done? 

A.—The feed valve should be tested. 

Q. 301.—How should the feed valve be tested? 

A.—Place the automatic brake valve handle in running position 
to see that the feed valve regulates the brake pipe pressure to the 
proper standard. 

Q. 302.—What test should follow the feed valve test? 

A.—A test of the automatic rotary valve for leakage. 

Q. 303.—How should this be tested? 

A.—Make a 20-pound service reduction, place the handle on lap 
position and close the double-heading cut-out cock under the brake 
valve. Harmful rotary valve leakage will be denoted in a few 
seconds by a material increase of pressure in the equalizing reservoir 
(shown as gauge), or by the equalizing piston lifting. 

Q. 304.—Would any other defect cause the equalizing piston to 
lift? 

A.—Yes; a leak from the equalizing reservoir, which will be shown 
on the gauge, will cause this. If the piston lifts, due to a rotary 
valve leak, however, the gauge hand does not fall. 

Q. 305.—What should next be done? 

A.—The locomotive brake pipe should be tested for leakage. 

Q. 306.—How should test be made for brake pipe leakage? 

A.—Charge the brake pipe and system to maximum pressure, 
then make a 5-pound service application and observe the fall in 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


369 


brake pipe pressure as indicated by the brake pipe gauge, not by the 
equalizing reservoir gauge. 

Q. 307.—What should the limit of this leakage be? 

A.—It should not exceed 5 pounds per minute. 

Q. 308.—What test should be made to determine if the brake is 
in good order? 

A.—Apply the brake by making a full service application with 
the automatic brake valve, and if it applies properly, release by 
placing the automatic brake valve handle in running position and 
note if the brake shoes properly clear the wheels and the cylinder 
pistons return to the end of the cylinder. 

Q. 309.—What other test should be made? 

A.—Apply the brake with the independent brake valve, noting 
that a full application (45 pounds) is registered by the red hand of 
the small air gauge and that the hand returns to zero when the brake 
is fully released. 

Q. 310.—With the independent brake valve handle in quick 
application position how long should it take to get 45 pounds cylinder 
pressure? 

A.—From two to four seconds. 

Q. 311.—How long should it then take from the time the inde¬ 
pendent brake valve handle is placed in release position until the flow 
of air from the application chamber at the brake valve ceases? 

A.—From two to three seconds. 

Q. 312.—What should be observed regarding piston travel? 

A—That the piston travel is only sufficient to give proper brake 
shoe clearance. 

Q. 313.—What is usually about the proper piston travel? 

A.—Driver brakes about four inches; engine truck brake about 
six inches, and tender brake about seven inches standing travel. 

Q. 314—Why is too long piston travel objectionable? 

A.—It may cause a loss of the brake due to the piston striking 
the head or levers fouling, which will lengthen the time of release 
of the brake and cause a waste of air. 


PUMP GOVERNOR TEST. 

Q. 315.—Before adjusting the pump governor, what should be 
observed? 

A.—That all air pipe connections are tight and that the vent port 
and drain port are open. 

Q. 316.—What would be the effect of a stopped-up vent port? 

A.—There might be a considerable drop in main reservoir pressure 
before the compressor would start. 

Q. 317.—If, in addition to a stopped-up vent port, either dia¬ 
phragm pin valve were leaking, what would be the effect? 



370 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—The compressor would not operate when the main reservoir 
pressure was about 40 pounds or over. 

Q. 318.—What would be the effect of a stopped-up drain port? 

A.—The governor would not shut off the compressor. 

Q. 319.—If., with the handle of the automatic brake valve in 
running position, the main reservoir and brake pipe pressures do 
not stand 20 pounds apart, where is the trouble? 

A.—In the adjustment of the excess pressure head of the pump 
governor. 

Q. 320.—What should then be done? 

A.—The excess pressure head of the pump governor should be 
properly adjusted. 

Q. 321.—Before commencing to adjust the excess pressure head, 
what is it important to note? 

A.—First, that the maximum pressure head is adjusted higher 
than the standard main reservoir pressure to be carried with the 
handle of the brake valve in running position. Second, that the air 
brake pressure is known to be correct. Third, that there is no 
obstruction either in the main reservoir connection to the chamber 
under the diaphragm of the excess pressure head or in the pipe con¬ 
nection to the spring chamber. 

Q. 322.—How should the adjustment of the excess pressure head 
be made? 

A.—Remove the cap nut from the excess pressure head and screw 
the regulating nut up or down, as may be required. 

Q. 323.—With the automatic brake valve handle in lap position, 
if the main reservoir pressure varies from the maximum employed 
on the road, where is the trouble? 

A. In the maximum pressure governor head. 

Q. 324.—If such variation exists, what should be done? 

A.—The maximum head should be properly adjusted. 

Q. 325.—In case of a steady blow of air from the vent port when 
the compressor is operating, where is the trouble? 

A.—A leak past the seat of one or both of the diaphragm pin 
valves. 


FEED VALVE TEST. 

Q. 326.—How should the B-6 feed valve be tested? 

A.—With brake released and system charged to standard pressure, 
open the angle cock at the rear of the tender sufficiently to represent 
a brake pipe leakage of from 7 to 10 pounds per minute and observe 
the brake pipe gauge pointer. 

Q. 327.—With this amount of brake pipe leakage, what should 
the brake pipe gauge pointer do? 

A.—It should fluctuate. 

Q. 328.—What does this fluctuation of the gauge pointer indicate? 

A.—The opening and closing of the supply valve of the feed valve. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


371 


Q. 329.—If the gauge hand does not fluctuate, what does it 
indicate? 

A.—That the supply valve piston is too loose a fit, and that the 
brake \ ipe leakage is being supplied past this piston and the regu¬ 
lating valve. 

Q. 330.—How much variation should there be between the opening 
and closing of the feed valve supply valve? 

A.—Not more than 2 pounds. 

Q. 331.—If the variation is more than 2 pounds, what does it 
indicate? 

A.—Undue friction of the parts or a sticky or dirty condition of 
the operating parts of the valve, causing insufficient opening past 
the piston. 

Q. 332.—If the feed valve charges the brake pipe to a pressure 
higher than that for which it is adjusted, what does it indicate? 

A.—That the piston has been made too tight a fit by oil or water. 

Q. 333.—If the feed valve charges the brake pipe too slowly 
when nearing its maximum, what does it indicate? 

A.—Either a loose fitting piston or a gummy condition of the 
regulating valve. 


REDUCING VALVE TEST. 


Q. 334.—How should the C-6 reducing valve be tested? 

A.—First, with the system charged to standard pressure, f illy 
apply the independent brake (handle in slow application position), 
and note the amount of brake cylinder pressure obtained. 

Q. 335.—What should this pressure be? 

A.—Forty-five pounds. 

Q. 336.—If, in this test, the brake cylinder pressure is other than 
45 pounds, what does it indicate? 

A.—A leaky supply valve, a leaky regulating valve, or that the 
reducing valve is out of adjustment. 

Q. 337.—After completing the test, what next should be done? 

A.—Release the brake and make an application in quick appli¬ 
cation position. 

Q. 338.—How can the reducing valve be tested for sensitiveness? 

A.—By applying a test gauge to the signal line hose, and produce 
a leakage of from 7 to 10 pounds per minute in the signal line pipe 
and note the fluctuation of the gauge pointer. 

Q. 339.—What is important in making this test? 

A.—It must be known that the combined strainer and check valve 
is in a condition to permit a free flow of air through it. 

Q. 340.—What other diseases might affect the operation of the 
reducing valve? 

A.—Those given in questions 329 to 333 for the feed valve. 



372 


ENGINEMEN'S MANUAL 


AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE TEST. 


Q. 341.—What should be observed concerning the automatic 
brake valve? 

A.—That all its pipe connections are tight and that the handle 
moves freely between its various positions and that the handle latch 
and its spring are in good condition. 

Q. 342.—If the handle does not operate easily, what are the prob¬ 
able causes? 

A.—A dry rotary valve seat, a dry rotary valve key gasket or a 
dry handle latch. 

Q. 343.—What should be done? 

A.—Rotary valve and seat, rotary valve key and handle latch 
should be properly lubricated. 

Q. 344.—What is the proper method of lubricating the valve 
and seat? 

A.—Close the double-heading cock under the brake valve, then 
the main reservoir cut-out cock and after the air pressure has escaped, 
remove the oil plug in the valve body and fill the oil hole with valve 
oil. 

Q. 345.—After filling the oil hole and before replacing the oil 
plug, what should be done? 

A.—The handle should be moved a few times between release and 
emergency positions to permit the oil to work in between the rotary 
valve and its seat. The oil hole should then be refilled and the oil 
plug replaced. 

Q. 346.—How should the rotary valve key and gasket be lubri¬ 
cated? 

A.—Remove the cap nut from the rotary valve key and fill the 
oil hole. 

Q. 347.—Before replacing the cap nut, what should be done? 

A.—Push down on the key and rotate the handle a few times 
between release and emergency positions; then refill the oil hole and 
replace the cap nut. 

Q. 348.—If the handle latch becomes dry, what should be done? 

A.—Lubricate the sides of the latch and the notches on the 
quadrant. 

Q. 349.—If, with the handle in release , running , holding or lap 
positions, there is a leak at the brake pipe service exhaust, what 
does it indicate? 

A.—That the equalizing piston valve is unseated, probably due 
to foreign matter. 

Q. 350.—How can this leak usually be stopped? 

A.—By closing the double-heading cut-out cock under the brake 
valve, making a heavy service application and returning the brake 
valve handle to release position. This will cause a heavy blow at 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


373 


the service exhaust fitting and usually remove the foreign matter 
and allow the valve to seat. 

Q. 351.—With the handle of the automatic brake valve in service 
application position, brake pipe pressure 70 pounds, how long should 
it take to reduce the equalizing reservoir pressure 20 pounds? 

A.—From 6 to 7 seconds. 

Q. 352.—From a brake pipe pressure of 110 pounds, how long 
should it take? 

A.—From 5 to 6 seconds. 

Q. 353.—In case the equalizing reservoir pressure reduces con¬ 
siderably faster than the time given, what is the probable cause? 

A.—Either an enlarged preliminary exhaust port, leakage past 
the rotary valve, seat, lower gasket, or in the equalizing reservoir 
and its connections to the brake valve or gauge. 

Q. 354.—If the reduction is materially slower than the figures 
given, what is probably the cause? 

A.—A partial stoppage of the preliminary exhaust port or leakage 
into the equalizing reservoir. 

Q. 355.—How should test be made for a leaky rotary valve? 

A.—By placing the brake valve handle in service position and 
allowing it to remain there until the brake pipe gauge pointer drops 
to zero; then close the double-heading cook under the brake valve 
and place the brake valve handle on lap. If a blow starts at the 
brake pipe exhaust, it indicates a leak by the rotary valve into the 
brake pipe; if an increase of pressure is noted on the equalizing 
resevoir gauge it indicates a leak past the rotary valve or body gasket 
into the chamber above the equalizing piston and reservoir. 

Q. 356.—During this test, if an increase of brake cylinder pres¬ 
sure results or the safety valve blows intermittently, what does it 
indicate? 

A.—A leak by the rotary valve into the application cylinder of 
the distributing valve. 

Q. 357.—With the brake valve handle on lap position after mak¬ 
ing a service application, if the brake pipe service exhaust continues 
to blow and the air gauge indicates a f all in pressure in both the equal¬ 
izing reservoir and brake pipe, where should the trouble be looked 

for? 

A.—In the equalizing reservoir and its connections, both to the 
brake valve and to the air gauge, and also the inner tube of the gauge. 


INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE TEST. 

Q. 358.—What are the important things to observe in connection 
with the independent brake valve? 

A.—That no external leakage exists in the brake valve or its pipe 
connections and that the handle and return spring work freely and 

properly, 



374 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 359.—What can cause the handle to move hard? 

A.—Lack of lubrication on the rotary valve and seat, rotary valve 
key and gasket or handle latch, same as with the automatic brake 
valve. 

Q. 360.—What should be done to make the handle move freely? 

A.—Follow the same recommendations as prescribed for the 
automatic brake valve. j| 

Q. 361.—Should the handle continue to work hard after the 
parts have been lubricated, where is the trouble? 

A.—Probably something is wrong with the return spring or its 
housing. 

Q. 362.—How should test for leaky rotary valve be made? 

A.—Make a partial independent application of the brakes, place 
the handle on lap, and note if brake cylinder pressure increases 
gradually to the limit of adjustment of the reducing valve. 

Q. 363.—Should the handle fail to automatically return to run¬ 
ning position or to slow application position, what is the probable 
cause? 

A.—Too much friction of the moving parts or a weak or broken 
return spring. 


DISTRIBUTING VALVE TEST. 

Q. 364.—With the system charged to standard pressure, if a 
5-pound service reduction in brake pipe pressure fails to apply 
the locomotive brake, what is the probable cause? 

A.—Excessive friction in one or more of the operative parts 
of 'the distributing valve. 

Q. 365.—How should the test be made to determine which of the 
operating parts caused the trouble? 

A.—By recharging and then making a slow independent appli¬ 
cation. If the brake applies properly, the indications are that the 
trouble is in the equalizing portion of the distributing valve; if it 
does not, the indications are that it is in the application portion. 

Q. 366.—How-frequently should the distributingvalve be cleaned 
and oiled? 

A.—At least every six months. 

Q. 367.—What part of the distributing valve should be lubri¬ 
cated? 

A.—All operating parts. 

Q. 368.—If water is found in the distributing valve, what is 
usually the cause? 

A.—Improper piping on the locomotive; not sufficient length 
of radiating pipe between the compressor and reservoirs. 

Q. 369.—How should the equalizing piston, slide valve and 
graduating valve be removed from the distributing valve? 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


375 


A.—Remove the equalizing cylinder cap and carefully pull out 
the piston and valves so as not to injure them. 

Q. 370.—How should the application piston, application valve 
and exhaust valve be removed? 

A.—First take off the application valve cover and remove the 
valve, then take out the application valve pin, after which the 
application cylinder cover should be removed and the piston and 
exhaust valve carefully pulled out. 

Q. 371.—Must the application valve pin always be removed 
before attempting to take out the application piston and exhaust 
valve? 

A.—Yes; if this is not done, damage will result, as the piston 
can not be taken out unless the pin is removed. 

Q. 372.—With the valves removed from the distributing valve, 
what should be done? 

A.—Air should be blown through the ports and passages to remove 
any foreign matter. 

Q. 373.—Before assembling the parts, what should be done? 

A.—All seats and bushings should be thoroughly cleaned and 
carefully examined to see that no lint is on the seats. 

Q. 374.—What else should be given attention? 

A.—The feed groove in the equalizing piston bushing should 
be carefully cleaned out. 

Q. 375.—What should be the resulting brake cylinder pressure 
from a 10-pound brake pipe reduction? 

A.—About 25 pounds. 

Q. 376.—For each pound reduction of brake pipe pressure, what 
should be the resulting brake cylinder pressure? 

A.—About 2}/2 pounds. 

Q. 377.—If, after a partial service application has been made 
and the brake valve lapped, the brake cylinder pressure continues 
to increase, what are the causes? 

A.—The most probable cause is brake pipe leakage. Others 
may be a leak past the automatic rotary valve, the independent 
rotary valve, the equalizing valve, or the graduating valve in the 
distributing valve. 

Q. 378.—What brake pipe pressure should be used when testing 
the “ET” equipment? 

A.—Seventy pounds. 

Q. 379.—Why? 

A.—With 70 pounds brake pipe pressure the point of equalization 
is below the adjustment of the safety valve. With 110 pounds 
pressure the point of equalization is above the adjustment of the 
safety valve and therefore leakage could not be so easily discovered. 

Q. 380.—How is the source of leaks determined? 

A.—By making a partial service application and observe to 
what figure the brake cylinder pressure rises. If it increases to 
50 pounds and remains constant, it indicates brake pipe leakage. 



376 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 381.—If the increase in the brake cylinder pressure is due 
to a leaky rotary in the automatic brake valve, how may it be de¬ 
tected? 

A.—The brake cylinder pressure will increase up to the limit 
of adjustment of the safety valve, causing it to blow. 

Q. 382.—If brake cylinder pressure increases to 45 pounds and 
stops, where may the trouble be looked for? 

A.—In the independent brake valve, due to a leaky, rotary. 

Q. 383.—With the safety valve removed and the brake applied 
with a partial service application, if a continuous leak exists at the 
safety valve connection to the distributing valve, what would 
probably be the cause? 

A.—A leaky graduating or equalizing valve. 

Q. 384.—If the equalizing-valve leaks, how can it be detected? 

A.—By a steady discharge of air through the exhaust port of the 
automatic brake valve when the handle of both this brake valve 
and the independent brake valve is in running position. 

Q. 385.—If, with a service application there is an intermittent 
blow at the brake cylinder exhaust port, what does it indicate? 

A.—A leaky application valve, provided the application cylinder 
and the application cylinder pipe is tight. 

Q. 386.—What indicates exhaust valve leakage? 

A.—A continuous discharge of air from the exhaust port when 
the brake is applied. 

Q. 387.—If after a service application the equalizing piston, 
slide valve and graduating valve move to release position because 
of graduating valve leakage, will the locomotive release? 

A.—On the engine from which the brakes are being operated 
the locomotive brake will not release, but on the second engine in 
double-headers or helpers with the brake valves cut out (double¬ 
heading cock closed) the locomotive brake will release. 

Q. 388.—Why does not the brake release on the locomotive 
from which the brakes are being operated? 

A.—Because under these conditions the automatic brake valve 
is on lap: consequently the air can not exhaust from the applica¬ 
tion chamber. 

Q. 389.—Why will the brake release on the second locomotive or 
helper? 

A.—Because the release pipe is open to the atmosphere. 

Q. 390.—If the brake released after an automatic application, 
when the handle is placed in release or holding position, but remains 
applied after an independent application, where would you look 
for the trouble? 

A.—It is caused by a leak from the distributing valve release 
pipe, between the automatic and the independent brake valves. 

Q. 391.—If the" brake releases after an independent applica¬ 
tion, but remains applied after an automatic application, what 
would cause the trouble? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


377 


A.—A leak in the distributing valve release pipe between the 
distributing valve and the independent brake valve. 

Q. 392.—If the brake releases after either an automatic or an 
independent application, what would cause the trouble? 

A.—A leak from the application cylinder pipe or past the applica¬ 
tion cylinder cap gasket. 

Q. 393.—How would a weak or broken application piston graduat¬ 
ing spring be detected? 

A.—If this spring becomes weak or broken, the application 
portion of the distributing valve would not be as sensitive to gradua¬ 
tion. 

Q. 394.—How should test for leakage in the application cylinder 
pipe be made? 

A.—Make a service application of the brake, lap the handle and 
note if the brake remains applied. , If it does not, it indicates that 
the application cylinder pipe or possibly that the application cylin¬ 
der cap gasket is leaking. 

Q. 395.—To determine if the release pipe is leaking, how should 
test be made? 

A.—Make a service application of the brake with the automatic 
brake valve. If the brake remains applied with handle in lap posi¬ 
tion but releases when handle is returned to holding, it indicates 
release pipe leakage. 

Q. 396.—If the brake cylinder pressure does not remain at that 
to which it is applied, what is the cause? 

A.—Leakage from application chamber, application cylinder 
or their pipe connections. 


BRAKE CYLINDER LEAKAGE TEST. 


Q. 397.—Can brake cylinder leakage be readily determined 
with “ET” equipment? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 398.—How? 

A.—By noting the number of strokes which the compressor 
makes in a given period of time. Then apply the brake with the 
independent brake valve and after the compressor has restored the 
main reservoir pressure again note the number of strokes. The 
difference in the number of strokes indicates the amount of leakage 
in the brake cylinders. 

Q. 399.—Is there any other method of determining brake cylinder 
leakage? 

A.—Yes; apply the brake with the independent brake valve, 
then close the cut-out cock in the distributing valve supply pipe 
and observe the brake cylinder gauge. The gauge will indicate the 
amount of leakage from the brake cylinders. 





378 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q. 400— Can it be determined which of the brake cylinders 
is leaking? 

A.—Yes. 

Q. 401.—How? 

A.—Apply the brake with the independent brake valve and 
close the cut-out cock in the distributing valve supply pipe, then 
close the cut-out cocks in the pipes leading to the truck brake cylin¬ 
der, driver brake cylinder and tender cylinder in order, noting the 
gauge after each cock is closed. 


SAFETY VALVE TEST. 

# 

Q. 402.—What attention should be given the E-6 safety valve? 

A.—It should be noted that the safety valve is screwed prop¬ 
erly in place, that the cap nut is screwed down on the regulating 
nut, making an air-tight joint with the body, and that all vent holes 
and ports are open. 

Q. 403.—If the cap nut is not screwed down properly, what 
would be the effect? 

A.—The valve and its stem would have too much lift and the 
leakage of air around the threads of the regulating nut to the atmos¬ 
phere would interfere with its proper operation. 

Q. 404.:—How should the safety valve be tested to determine 
if it is properly adjusted? 

A.—Make an emergency application of the brake, allowing the 
handle to remain in emergency position, and note if the proper 
brake cylinder pressure is obtained. 

Q. 405.—What brake pipe pressure should be used when test¬ 
ing the safety valve? 

A.—One hundred pounds. 

Q. 406.—Within what limits should the safety valve limit the 
locomotive brake cylinder pressure? 

A.—Between 68 and 70 pounds. 

Q. 407.—If the safety valve is adjusted at 68 pounds, and the 
pressure increases above 70 pounds, what would be the cause? 

A.—The holes leading from the spring chamber of the valve 
are restricted or the piston valve has worn loose. 

Q. 408.—If the safety valve permits the pressure to reduce con¬ 
siderably below 68 pounds before closing, what would be the trouble? 

A.—The holes leading from the spring chamber of the valve 
have been enlarged or gum or dirt has made the piston valve too 
close a fit. 

Q. 409.—Within what limits should the safety valve limit the 
locomotive brake cylinder pressure for ordinary service applica¬ 
tions (110 pounds brake pressure)? 

A.—Between 65 and 70 pounds. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


379 


AIR SIGNAL SUPPLY SYSTEM TEST. 


Q. 410.—In testing the air signal, what should first be done? 

A.—The signal pipe should be charged and all stop cocks, joints 
and unions carefully examined for leakage. 

Q. 411.—How can it be determined whether the proper pres¬ 
sure is being carried in the signal line? 

A.—By attaching a test gauge to the signal line hose. 

Q. 412.—What would a too high signal pipe pressure indicate? 

A.—That the reducing valve was improperly adjusted or was 
leaking. 

Q. 413.—What effect might this have? 

A.—In combination with a leaky signal line it might cause the 
signal whistle to blow when an independent application of the brake 
is made. 

Q. 414.—How can reducing valve leakage be determined? 

A.—By making a signal pipe reduction and noting if the pres¬ 
sure gradually increases after the standard maximum signal pipe 
pressure has been attained. 

Q. 415.—With a reasonably tight signal pipe, if the whistle blows 
when an independent application of the brake is made, what would 
be the cause? 

A.—A leaky valve in the combined strainer and check valve. 

Q. 416.—If, in charging up the signal pipe the test gauge indi¬ 
cates a too slow increase of pressure, where should the trouble be 
looked for? 

A.—Probably an obstruction in the strainer or choke fitting or 
a loose fitting feed valve piston. 

Q. 417.—If, with the signal system of the locomotive fully 
charged, the signal whistle blows, what is the probable cause? 

A.—Leakage in the signal system and a sluggishly operating 
reduction valve. 



The New York B-3 Locomo¬ 
tive Brake Equipment 

This locomotive brake equipment is known as the B-3 equip¬ 
ment, and is arranged in four different schedules to cover the gen¬ 
eral requirements of railroad service. 

Schedule B-3 is for engines in passenger or freight service, where 
but one brake pipe pressure is used. Both pump governor and 
pressure controller have single regulating heads, which should 
be adjusted for the standard brake pipe and main reservoir pres¬ 
sure. 

Schedule B-3S is for switch engines only. A single pump gover¬ 
nor and single pressure controller are used. The controller is set 
to give a brake pipe pressure of 70 pounds and the pump governor 
for 90 pounds main reservoir pressure, for ordinary switching service. 
However, when the engine is used for passenger switching service, 
and handles trains that are using 110 pounds brake pipe pressure, 
the pump governor should be adjusted to 110 pounds main reservoir 
pressure. When handling a train using the high pressure, close 
cock No. 2 between the regulating and supply portions of the con¬ 
troller. This renders the controller inoperative, allowing the main 
reservoir pressure of 110 pounds to pass to the brake valve and 
brake pipe, so that trains using the high speed brake can be 
handled without delay without the necessity of carrying additional 
apparatus. A quick release valve is furnished with this schedule, 
to be placed in the straight air pipe, so that the brakes can be re¬ 
leased quickly, permitting quicker movement. The divided reser¬ 
voir and accelerator valve are not furnished with this schedule. 
The supplementary reservoir is substituted for the divided reservoir. 

Schedule B-3HP is for freight service where heavily loaded trains 
are handled on heavy grades, or loads handled down grades and 
empties up. Both regulating portions of the pump governor and 
pressure controller are duplex, so that pressures of 70 and 90 pounds 
can be carried in the brake pipe and 90 and 110 pounds in the main 
reservoir for the ordinary brake pipe pressure and the high pres¬ 
sure control. 

For the operation of these duplex regulating portions, three- 
way cocks are provided, being connected as shown in the piping 
diagram. To operate these cocks, turn the handle in line with the 
pipe leading to the regulating head to be used, high or low pres¬ 
sure as desired. This will cut in the head to regulate the supply 
portion, and cut off the pressure to the one not in use. 

Schedule B-3HS is the high speed brake. It includes the duplex 
pressure controller and the duplex pump governor. The regulating 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


381 



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RESERVOIR 


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EV 108 


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EV 301 
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Fig. 2. 


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382 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 




.Fig. 4. 



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ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


383 


heads of the pressure controller should be adjusted to 70 pounds 
and 110 pounds for brake pipe pressure, and the pump governor 
heads adjusted to 90 pounds and 130 pounds for the main reservoir 
pressure. A union four-way cock is used with the regulating heads 
of the pressure controller. This is a special cock with a connection 
to each regulating top, one to the supply pipe between the con¬ 
troller and brake valve, and one to the pipe between the brake 
valve and accelerator reservoir. When the handle of the four-way 
cock is in the position to operate the regulating head adjusted to 
110 pounds brake pipe pressure, a small port in the accelerator 
reservoir connection is brought into communication with a port 
to the atmosphere. The object of this port is to prevent more 
than the usual predetermined reduction of brake pipe air, obtained 
in the graduating notches, taking place with 110 pounds pressure. 
A union three-way cock connected to the main reservoir and pump 
governor regulating tops is used to change the main reservoir pres¬ 
sures. 

This equipment is an improvement on former equipments. It 
not-only includes all necessary features for the automatic brake, 
but also a straight air brake for the locomotive and tender, all oper¬ 
ated by the automatic brake valve, without any additional positions. 

Some of the notable improvements incorporated in the B-3 brake 
valve, which will be appreciated by those who come in contact with 
it, are: The use of tap bolts instead of screws to fasten the valve 
cover to the body; port 0 is cored in the valve body instead of being 
drilled through the cover; the projection for centering the piston 
packing leather EV 107 is on the piston instead of on the follower. 
A new packing leather can now be applied without removing the pis¬ 
ton from the brake valve. It is only necessary to remove the back 
cap and the piston follower. 


MANIPULATION. 

To apply the automatic brakes on the locomotive and train, 
move the handle of the brake valve to the graduating notch 
necessary to make the required brake pipe reduction. 

To release both locomotive and train brakes, move the handle 
to running and straight air release position. 

To release the train brakes and hold the locomotive brakes set, 
move the handle to automatic release and straight air application 
position. 

To apply the locomotive brakes (straight air), move the handle 
to full automatic release and straight air application position. 

To release the locomotive brakes move the handle to running 
and straight air release position. 

To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle quickly 
to emergency position and leave it there until the train stops. 



384 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


In case the automatic brakes are applied by the bursting of a 
hose, the train parts, or a conductor’s valve is opened, place the 
handle in lap position to retain the main reservoir pressure. 

To graduate off or entirely release the locomotive brakes while 
holding the train brakes applied, use the lever safety valve to make 
the required reduction. 

The handle of the brake valve will be found to work freely and 
easily at all times, as the pressure on the main slide valve does 
not exceed the maximum brake pipe pressure. 

The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pressure in the 
locomotive brake cylinder and should be observed in brake manip¬ 
ulations. 

Where there are two or more locomotives in a train, cut-out 
cock No. 1 should be turned to close the brake pipe and the brake 
valve handle carried in running and straight air release position 
on all locomotives except the one from which the brakes are oper¬ 
ated. 

In case it becomes necessary to cut out the straight air brake, 
close cut-out cock No. 3, located in the straight air pipe. 

To cut out the automatic brake on the engine, close cut-out 
cock No. 6, located in the pipe connecting the triple valve with 
the double check valve. By locating the cut-out cock at this point 
the auxiliary reservoir will remain charged if the brake is cut out, 
and can be cut in immediately should it be so desired. This cut¬ 
out cock and also cut-out cock No. 3 are special; they are of the 
three-way pattern and when turned off drain the pipes leading to 
the double check valve, which insures the check valve remaining 
seated in the direction of the closed cock. 

The main reservoir cock No. 4 is to cut off the supply of air when 
removing any of the apparatus except the governor. 

The straight air controller is to limit the pressure in the driver, 
truck and tender brake cylinders for the straight air brake, and 
should be adjusted to 40 pounds pressure. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


385 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
B-3 “HS” LOCOMOTIVE 
BRAKE 


Q.—On what is this type of brake designed to operate? 

A.—On locomotives in passenger service. 

Q.—What are some of the advantages of the B3-HS type of brake 
over the older style equipment? 

A.—But one engineer’s brake valve is used to operate either 
the automatic or straight air brake on the locomotive; only maxi¬ 
mum brake pipe pressure enters the brake valve, thereby prevent¬ 
ing any possibility of overcharging the brake pipe, also reducing 
the friction between the slide valve and its seat; the brake valve is 
assisted by the accelerator valve, in reducing the brake pipe pres¬ 
sure on long trains; the high speed controller valve takes the place 
of the compensating valve, also enables the engineer to partially 
or wholly release the driver and truck brakes without releasing the 
train brakes; the locomotive brake will not release, on account of 
brake cylinder leakage, when the brake valve is in the fifth service 
notch or in emergency position. 

Q.—Name the different parts of the equipment, and state briefly 
their duties. 

A.—1. The air pump; to compress the air used on the locomotive 
and cars. 

2. The duplex pump governor; to control the pump when the 
desired pressure is obtained in the main reservoir. 

3. The main reservoir; in which to store a large volume of air 
for the prompt charging and recharging of the brakes, and to col¬ 
lect the moisture and dirt in the air. 

4. The main reservoir cut-out cock; which, when closed, cuts 
off the communication between the main reservoir and the brake 
system. 

5. The engineer’s brake valve; to operate the straight air on the 
locomotive, and the automatic brake on both locomotive and train. 

6. The divided reservoir; to furnish the proper volume of air in 
chamber D of the brake valve, also a reservoir which is used in con¬ 
junction with the accelerator valve. 

7. The pressure controller; to control the pressure in the slide 
valve chamber of the brake valve. 

8. The accelerator valve; to assist the brake valve in reducing 
the brake pipe pressure on long trains, when a service application 
of the brake is made. 





386 ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


9. The %-inch pressure controller; to control the maximum 
straight air pressure. 

10. The high speed controller; acts as a safety valve to all brake 
cylinders on the locomotive to which it is connected, also provides 
a means of partially or wholly releasing the locomotive brake in¬ 
dependent of the train brake. 

11. The auxiliary reservoirs; in which a supply of compressed 
air is stored to operate the brakes on the locomotive. 

12. The triple valves; to admit air to and exhaust it from the 
brake cylinders, and to control the flow of air to and from the aux¬ 
iliary reservoirs. The above, with the necessary gauges, strainers, 
cylinders, cut-out cocks, hose couplings and piping make up the 
B3 equipment. 

Q.—Commencing at the air pump name the different pipes and 
their connections. 

A.—Discharge pipe; to connect the pump and first main reser¬ 
voir. 

Connecting pipe; to connect the two main reservoirs. 

Main reservoir pipe; to connect the second main reservoir to the 
pump governor, straight air pipe, brake valve, through the 134 -inch 
pressure controller. This pipe also furnishes air to the connections 
of all other air-operated appliances on the locomotive. 

Pressure controller pipe; to connect the pressure controller 
with the slide valve chamber in the brake valve, and to the regulat¬ 
ing portion of the 134 -inoh pressure controller. 

Brake cylinder pipe; connects the brake valve through the straight 
air side of the double check with the brake cylinders on the loco¬ 
motive, also with the regulating portion of the inch pressure 
controller, and the triple valves, through the automatic side of the 
double check, with the brake cylinders. 

The high speed controller pipe; connects the high speed controller 
with both the automatic and straight air sides of the double check 
to the driver and truck brake cylinders, and the straight air side of 
the double check to the tender brake cylinder. 

The supplementary reservoir pipe; to connect the supplementary 
reservoir with chamber D in the brake valve. 

The accelerator valve pipe; to connect the accelerator valve 
with the brake pipe. 

The_accelerator reservoir pipe; to connect the accelerator reser¬ 
voir with the brake valve. 

The brake pipe; to connect the brake valve with all operating 
triple valves on both locomotive and train. 

Auxiliary reservoir pipe; to connect the triple valves, with their 
respective auxiliaries. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


387 


B-3 LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE 

Q.—What type of brake valve is used with this equipment? 

A.—The B-3 is of the slide valve type. 

Q.—What are the duties of the main slide valve? 

A.—The main slide valve forms a dividing between the main 
reservoir supply and the various parts of the equipment charged 
with air, and, in its various positions, connects these parts with the 
atmosphere. 

Q.—What are the duties of the graduating valve? 

A.—The duties of the graduating valve are to close the opening 
in the exhaust port, made by the movement of the main slide valve, 
in a service application of the brake. 

Q.—Name the different positions of the brake valve. 

A.—Automatic release, and straight air application; running and 
straight air release; lap; service, subdivided into five graduating 
notches; and emergency positions. 

Q.—What is the object of having the straight air port open to 
the brake cylinders when an automatic application of the brake is 
made? 

A.—When the fifth notch is used, generally speaking, the train 
has no great distance in which to complete the stop, therefore, to 
insure full braking pressure on the locomotive, regardless of piston 
travel or brake cylinder leakage, this feature is used. 

Q.—What is the object of the divided reservoir? 

A.—To secure the proper movement of the piston in service ap¬ 
plications of the brake, it is necessary to have a greater volume of 
air behind the piston than that found in Chamber D, therefore, to 
increase this volume, the small chamber in the divided reservoir 
is added to it by both chambers being connected by piping. The 
larger chamber is used in connection with the accelerator valve. 

Q.—Is this type of reservoir used in all the different schedules 
of the B-3 equipment? 

A.—No; it is used only when the accelerator valve is part of the 
equipment. 


PRESSURE CONTROLLER 


Q.—How is the brake pipe pressure regulated with this equip¬ 
ment? 

A.—As the maximum brake pipe pressure is controlled by the 
pressure in chamber B of the brake valve, and as this pressure is, 
in turn, controlled by the pressure controller, it may be said that 
the brake pipe pressure is regulated by the pressure controller. 




388 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—Does the pressure controller then take the place of the feed 
valve or excess pressure valve as used with other types of brake 
valves? 

A.—Yes; the pressure controller may be considered a part of the 
brake valve. 

Q.—Where is the pressure controller located? 

A.—In the pipe between the main reservoir and the brake valve, 
and is generally located inside the cab. 

Q.—Of what does the pressure controller consist? 

A.—Generally it is in two parts, known as the regulating portion 
and supply portion, with a pipe connection between them. Where 
it is desired, the regulating portion may be attached direct to the 
supply portion. 

Q.—What pressure is found below the diaphragm of the regulating 
portion? 

A.—Pressure controller pipe pressure. 

Q.—What pressure is found in the supply portion of the pressure 
controller? 

A.—Main reservoir pressure enters as far as the valve PG 166, 
while on the other side of this valve the pressure is the same as that 
in the main slide valve chamber of the brake valve. 

Q.— How is the brake pipe pressure regulated? 

A.—By screwing the regulating nut up or down, as may be required. 

Q.—What is the object of the duplex or double top regulating 
portion? 

A.—This is simply for a matter of convenience, where the brake 
pipe pressure is changed from one standard pressure to that of an¬ 
other, while the train is en route, or where the engine may be running 
in two different classes of service. 

Q.—At what pressure are these tops usually adjusted? 

A.—On engines in passenger service the low pressure top is gen¬ 
erally adjusted at 70 pounds, and the high pressure top at 110 pounds. 

Q.—How are the regulating portions of the duplex controller 
cut in and cut out? 

A.—By means of a four-way cock, which is connection to both 
of the regulating tops, when one top is cut in the other cut out. 
This cock also has a connection to accelerator reservoir. 

Q.—What do the letters L, H, and R cast on a four-way cock in¬ 
dicate? 

A.—L indicates the low pressure position, H the high pressure 
position, R the accelerator reservoir connection. 

Q.—How is the four-way cock operated? 

A.—By turning the handle to have it point toward L for low 
pressure, and H for high pressure. 

Q.—What is the purpose of the hand wheel? 

A.—By screwing up on the hand wheel, the valve will be held 
from its seat, and main reservoir air will be free to flow to the brake 
pipe until the pressure equalizes, 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


389 


Q.—When should the hand wheel be used? 

A.—Whenever the pressure controller, through some defect, fails 
to furnish the proper pressure in the brake pipe, or when it is desired 
to carry the same pressure in the brake pipe as that in the main 
reservoir, as in braking trains on heavy grades, where the higher 
pressure is required. 

Q.—Can a sticking brake be released by screwing up on the hand 

wheel? 

A.—Yes, it may; but in releasing a stuck brake in this way the 
brake pipe will become overcharged, which may cause the brakes 
to reapply; therefore, it may be said to be bad practice to release 
a stuck brake by screwing up on the hand wheel. 

Q.—What is the purpose of port x in the supply portion of the 
control valve? 

A.—To exhaust any air that may leak into the chamber under the 

piston. 


ACCELERATOR VALVE 

Q.—What is the purpose of the accelerator valve? 

A.—The accelerator valve is for the purpose of accelerating or 
hastening the discharge of air from the brake pipe when a service 
application of the brake is being made on a long train; in other words, 
it is to assist the brake valve in reducing the brake pipe pressure. 

Q.—Why is it necessary to accelerate or hasten the reduction of 
brake pipe pressure on a long train? 

A.—When a service application of the brake is being made, the 
pressure toward the rear end of train will drop so slowly that the air 
from the auxiliary reservoirs may flow back into the brake pipe, in¬ 
creasing the volume that has to be discharged from the brake pipe, 
and where this condition exists it means that many of the brakes at 
or near the rear of the train will not apply, due to the fact that a 
sufficient difference in pressure between the brake pipe and the 
auxiliary reservoir cannot be created to move the triple valves to 
application position, and it is for this reason that the accelerator 
valve is used, as by hastening the drop of brake pipe pressure a 
greater number of brakes may apply. 

Q.—Is there any other cause for brakes failing to apply due to a 
large volume and slow reduction? 

A.—When making a service application of the brake, the air from 
the auxiliary reservoir cannot flow to the brake cylinder any faster 
than the brake pipe pressure can be reduced at the brake valve; 
therefore, with long trains, where the reduction of brake pipe pres¬ 
sure is slow, the air may flow from the auxiliary reservoir so slowly 
that it - may pass through the leakage grooves to the atmosphere 
and not apply the brakes. 




390 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—To what is the accelerator valve attached? 

A.—To the accelerator reservoir. 

Q.—What pipe connections are there to the accelerator reservoir? 

A.—There is but one pipe leading from the accelerator reservoir, 
which goes to the engineer’s brake valve; this pipe is teed and a 
connection goes to the four-way cock. 

Q.—What length of train is necessary to obtain action of the 
accelerator valve? 

A.—About eight cars. 

Q.—How long after the brake valve is placed in one of the gradu¬ 
ating notches before the accelerator valve will operate? 

A.—About four seconds. 

Q.—How soon does it close, after the exhaust is closed, at the 
brake valve? 

A.—About four seconds. 


HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER 


Q.—What is the purpose of the high speed controller? 

A.—It acts as a safety valve to the driver, truck, and tender brake 
cylinders in straight air applications, and to the driver and truck 
brake cylinders in an automatic application; also provides a means 
of releasing the driver and truck brakes independent of the train 
brake following an automatic application of the brake. 

Q.—Of what does the high speed controller consist? 

A.—It consists of a cylinder containing a double faced piston 
having leather seats on each face; this piston is attached to a stem 
or valve, which has two annular grooves, one large and one small. 
The upper portion consists of a cap nut, regulating nut, regulating 
spring, regulating spring stem, lever handle, and valve. 

Q.—What pressure is found in the chamber at the right of the 
piston? 

A.—Brake pipe pressure. 

Q.—What pressure is found in the chamber at the left of the pis¬ 
ton? 

A.—Brake cylinder pressure. 

Q.—Explain the operation of the high speed controller, when a 
service application of the brake is made. 

A.—Brake pipe air, which enters the controller at the connec¬ 
tion, forces the piston to the left, bringing the large annular opening 
in valve over the opening from the brake cylinder connection, thus 
allowing the brake cylinder air to flow through the large annular 
groove and port G to the under side of valve, which is being held to 
its seat by the tension of the regulating spring. If the cylinder pres¬ 
sure becomes greater than that for which the controller is adjusted, 
the valve will be raised from its seat, and brake cylinder air will 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


391 


escape to the atmosphere until the pressure is reduced slightly be¬ 
low that for which the controller is adjusted. Where the brake cyl¬ 
inder pressure remains below the adjustment of the controller, there 
is no movement of the parts. 

Q.—Explain the operation when an emergency application is made. 

A.—When an emergency application is made, the brake pipe pres¬ 
sure is reduced quite low, or probably to zero; this drops the pressure 
on the right or brake pipe side of the double faced piston, and the 
brake cylinder pressure forming on the left or brake cylinder side 
of the piston will force it to the right, bringing the small annular 
opening in the valve over the opening to the brake cylinder connec¬ 
tion; this allows the brake cylinder air to flow through the small 
annular opening and port G to the under side of the valve; when the 
brake cylinder pressure becomes greater than that for which the 
controller is adjusted, the valve will rise, and the brake cylinder air 
will escape to the atmosphere gradually, until the pressure is reduced 
slightly below that for which the controller is adjusted—thus retain¬ 
ing the higher brake cylinder pressure for a greater length of time. 

Q.—At what pressure should the controller be adjusted? 

A.—At 53 pounds. 

Q.—Explain how the driver and truck brake may be partially or 
wholly released, independent of the train brake. 

A.—By pressing down the handle, the spring pressure is removed 
from the top of valve RV 133; this permits the brake cylinder pres¬ 
sure, to raise the valve and the air to flow to the atmosphere, releasing 
it all or in part, as desired. 


STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 

Q.—What brakes are operated by the straight air? 

A.—The locomotive brakes only. 

Q.—Why is this called the straight air? 

A.—Because the air used comes from the main reservoir direct, 
and is not dependent on the movement of triple valves or other 
similar devices for the application or release of the brake. 

Q.—How is the straight air applied? 

A.—By placing the combined automatic and straight air brake 
valve in application position; N, to which is connected the straight 
air pipe carrying main reservoir air, is opened through passage L in 
the slide valve to E, to which is connected the pipe leading to the 
straight air side of the double check valve, and on to the locomotive 
brake cylinders. 

Q.—What should be the maximum pressure developed with this 
brake? 

A.—About 40 pounds. 

Q.—How is this pressure regulated? 

A.—By the %-inch pressure controller. 



392 


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Q.—Can the straight air brake be graduated on and off? 

A.—Yes, the brake may be graduated on by moving the brake 
valve to application position and back to straight air lap position, 
which is about halfway between automatic release and running po¬ 
sitions, and by moving between straight air lap and running posi¬ 
tion, the brake may be graduated off. 

Q.—If, after applying the straight air, the brake valve handle is 
placed in positive lap position, will the brake stay set? 

A.—No. 

Q.—How is this brake released? 

A.—When the brake valve is placed in running and straight air 
released position, port E, which leads to the brake cylinders, is con¬ 
nected with port V, which leads to the exhaust, thus allowing any 
air in the brake cylinders to escape to the atmosphere. 

Q.—Does the variation of piston travel affect the pressure de¬ 
veloped with this brake? 

A—No. 

Q.—Will the brake release with ordinary brake cylinder leakage? 

A—No; if the brake valve is left in application position, air will 
continue to flow to the brake cylinders as fast as it leaks away. 


DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 

Q.—The B-3 brake valve is supposed to make a brake pipe reduc¬ 
tion corresponding to the notch the handle is placed in, and then 
automatically move to lap position; if it does not do this, where 
would you look for the trouble? 

A.—Would look for a leak from chamber D or the supplementary 
reservoir. 

Q-—If there be no leak from chamber D or the supplementary 
reservoir to the atmosphere, and the valve failed to automatically 
lap, where might the trouble be? 

A.—The fact that the brake valve fails to automatically lap or 
close the service exhaust port, indicates a leakage of air from cham¬ 
ber D and the supplementary reservoir, and if the leakage is not to 
the atmosphere, then it may be past the piston EV 311 into cham¬ 
ber A and the brake pipe, or may be through the partition of the 
divided reservoir, which would mean that chamber D and supple¬ 
mentary reservoir air would be leaking into the accelerator reser¬ 
voir. Great care should be taken to see that there be no leakage 
* r i? m this chamber; as its volume is small, the pressure, therefore, is 
affected by even light leakage. 

Q- What effect will a leak from chamber D or the supplementary 
reservoir have, brakes released, valve in running position? 

A. As the air in chamber D and the supplementary reservoir 
comes from the brake pipe, this, then, would be a brake pipe leak, 
and have no effect other than to increase the work of the pump. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


393 


Q.—If the brake valve fails to automatically lap the service exhaust 
port, following a service application of the brake, what should be done? 

A.—The brake valve handle should be moved slowly back to 
positive lap position, when the desired reduction is made. 

Q.—If the brake valve is returned quickly to positive lap posi¬ 
tion, what would be the effect? 

A.—If the brake pipe exhaust is closed quickly, there is a tendency 
for the brakes to release on the head end of the train. 

Q.—If the pipe connecting the supplementary reservoir and the 
brake valve breaks, what should be done? 

A.—Plug the broken pipe towards the brake valve, and when 
making a service application of the brake the valve will have to be 
returned to positive lap position when the desired reduction is made. 

Q.—How will the engineman know when the brake valve is fail¬ 
ing to automatically lap? 

A.—By noting if the brake pipe reduction corresponds with the 
reduction that should be obtained in the notch in which the handle 
is placed. 

Q.—What reduction should be obtained in tho different service 
notches, with a 70-pound brake pipe pressure; with a 110-pound? 

A.—the following table shows the total reduction obtained as the 
handle is moved to the different notches, also the reduction as the 
handle is moved to each notch. 

70 lbs. 110 lbs. 


1 . 

Service graduating notch 

5-5 

6-6 

2. 

Service graduating notch 

8-3 

10-4 

3. 

Service graduating notch 

11-3 

14-4 

4. 

Service graduating notch 

16-5 

21-7 

5. 

Service graduating notch 

23-7 

30-9 


Q.—What will cause a blow at the brake pipe exhaust port when 
the brake valve is in release, running, or lap position? 

A.—A leaky main slide valve, vent valve, or a leak through the 
partition in the double chamber reservoir; leakage past the double- 
seated valve in the high pressure controller, will cause a blow when 
the brake valve is in running or lap position; a leaky graduating valve 
will cause a blow when the brake valve is in automatic lap position. 

Q.—How would you test for main slide valve leaking? 

A.—First exhaust all the air from the system, then place the 
brake valve in lap position, then start the pump, next open the angle 
cock at the rear of tender, and if air is found here the valve is leaking. 
Generally speaking, if there be a continuous blow in all positions, 
the slide valve is leaking. 

Q.—Where is the trouble when the brake valve will automatically 
move to lap position with a lone engine, and fails to do so when 
coupled to a train? 

A.—This is caused by leakage of chamber D and supplementary 
reservoir air past the piston EV 311 into chamber A and the brake 
pipe, and the action may be accounted for in the following: with the 



394 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


engine alone, the brake pipe volume is small, and its pressure is re¬ 
duced quite rapidly, thereby creating a difference in pressures in 
chambers A and D, which causes the piston EV 311 to move, which, 
in turn, moves the graduating valve to lap position, closing the ex¬ 
haust. But when coupled to a train, where the brake pipe volume 
is larger, the drop in pressure will be slower, giving the air in cham¬ 
ber D time to leak by the piston EV 311 , keeping the pressures equal 
on both sides of the piston, therefore the piston will not move the 
graduating valve to lap position. 

Q.—Where would you look for the trouble if there were a constant 
blow at the accelerator valve exhaust? 

A.—Would look for a leak past the slide valve. 

Q.—When making a service application of the brake, the accel¬ 
erator valve is not supposed to operate on trains of less than eight 
cars, but ii it does, where would you look for the trouble? 

A.—This may be caused by the port S in the piston or the port in 
the four-way cock being stopped up, or the spring too weak or broken. 

Q.—If port S in the piston RV 65 or the exhaust port in the four¬ 
way cock were stopped up, what effect whould it have on the brake 
pipe reduction when making a service application of the brake? 

A.—The accelerator valve would cause a greater reduction than 
should be obtained for the notch in which the brake valve is placed. 

Q.—Where might the trouble be if the maximum brake pipe pres¬ 
sure is not obtained? 

A.—The regulating portion may be improperly adjusted, the re¬ 
lief port C stopped up, or the diaphragm valve leaking. 

Q.—How can you tell if the diaphragm valve is leaking? 

A.—There will be a continuous blow at the relief port C. 

Q.—What will cause the brake pipe pressure to vary, when the 
brake is not being used? 

A.—This is caused by sluggish action of the pressure controller. 

Q.—If the pipe leading to the regulating tops of the pressure con¬ 
troller broke, how would it affect the controller, and what should be 
done? 

A.—If this pipe breaks, the controller will not regulate the brake 
pipe pressure, that is, main reservoir pressure would be had in the 
brake pipe; the broken pipe should be plugged to prevent the waste 
of air and the pump governor adjusted to the pressure desired in the 
brake pipe. 

Q.—What would be the effect of a leak past the seat, on the brake 
cylinder side, of the high speed controller? 

A.—Brake pipe air would leak to the brake cylinders, causing a 
build up of pressure, if the brake was set; and if released, would cause 
a blow at the triple valve or the straight air exhaust ports. 

Q.—What would be the effect of a leak past the seat, on the brake 
pipe side, of the high speed controller? 

A.—The brake cylinder pressure would leak into the brake pipe any 
time the brake pipe pressure becomes less than that in the brake 
cylinders. 




Questions and Answers on 
the “K” Triple Valve 

Q.—On what car equipment is this type of triple valve used? 

A.—On freight cars. 

Q.—What are the duties of the triple valve? 

A.—To control the flow of air from the brake pipe to the 
auxiliary reservoir, when charging the brake; to regulate the flow, 
and measure the amount of auxiliary reservoir air to the brake 
cylinders when applying the brake, and to create a communica¬ 
tion from the brake cylinders to the atmosphere when releasing 
the brake. 

These functions are found in the different types of triple 
valves. 

Q.—Are there any additional features found in the K type 
of valve? 

A.—Yes, there has been added what is known as quick service, 
retarded release and uniform recharge features, which are not 
found in the F-36 or the H-49 Westinghouse triple valves. 

Q.—What is meant by the quick service feature? 

A.—When a service application of the brake is made at the 
brake valve each triple valve will move to what is known as 
quick-service position, in which position a small port is open from 
the brake pipe to the brake cylinder, which permits the brake 
pipe air to flow to the brake cylinder, thereby making a local 
brake pipe reduction, causing a somewhat rapid and. uniform drop 
of pressure throughout the train. 

Q.—Is this somewhat rapid drop of brake pipe pressure neces¬ 
sary for the proper operation of the brakes throughout the train? 

A.—Yes, especially on a long train. 

Q.—Why? 

A.—When making a service application of the brake the triple 
valves are moved to application position by a reduction of brake 
pipe pressure; and with the older type of triple valves this reduc¬ 
tion was made at the brake valve only; therefore, the rate of 
reduction was governed by the opening of the brake pipe exhaust 
port in the brake valve and length of train. Where the train was 
long, the drop in pressure was necessarily slow, thus allowing the 
air in the auxiliary reservoirs to flow back to the brake pipe, 
through the feed groove in the triple valve, keeping the pressure 
the same on both sides of the triple piston and thus fail to move 
the triple to application position and apply the brake. Again, 
when the rate of reduction is slow, the triple valves may move 
to application position, but as the auxiliary reservoir air can not 


396 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


flow to the brake cylinders any faster than the brake pipe 
pressure is being reduced, the air from the auxiliary flows 
to the brake cylinders so slowly that it passes through the leak¬ 
age grooves, or past the packing leather to the atmosphere, and 
does not move the brake piston, therefore fails to set the brake. 
However, with the' quick-service port, taking air from the brake 
pipe on each car, the pressure is reduced rapidly and uniformly, 
thus insuring the brakes applying throughout the train. 

Q.—What is meant by the uniform release feature?. 

A.—When a release of the brakes is being made, and the triple 
valves move to retarded release position, the exhaust port from 
the brake cylinder to the atmosphere is partly closed, thereby 
making the exhaust of the brake cylinder air slower than when 
the triple valve moves to normal release position. Retarded 
release may be obtained on about the first thirty cars in the train, 
and as the brakes on the head end of the train commence to 
release first, the result is practically a uniform release of the 
entire train, which lessens the danger of parting the train when 
making a release of the brakes without stopping. 

Q.—What is meant by uniform recharge? 

A.—When releasing the brakes on a train the brake valve is 
placed in release position, which causes the brake pipe pressure 
at the head end of the train to rise rapidly above the pressure 
in the auxiliary reservoir, while the pressure on the rear portion 
of the train rises slowly. 

This causes the triple valves on the head portion of the train 
to move to what might be termed retarded recharge position, in 
which position the opening in the triple valve from the brake 
pipe to the auxiliary reservoir is small; this retards the flow of 
brake pipe air to the auxiliary reservoir, thus delaying, or rather 
lengthening the time of their recharge. The triples on the rear 
portion of the train, due to the slow rise of brake pipe pressure, 
are moved to normal release position, in which there is a large 
opening from the brake pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, and it is 
this difference in the size of the charging ports that brings about 
a more uniform recharge of the auxiliary reservoirs throughout 
the train. 

Q.—What is the advantage of uniform recharge? 

A.—In recharging the brakes of a train, where it is done 
uniformly there is less tendency for the head brakes to reapply, 
when the brake valve is moved from release to running position, 
which is quite likely to occur, if the auxiliary reservoirs on the 
head portion of the train are overcharged. Uniform recharge 
will also bring about a more even distribution of the brake power 
following the first application of the brake. 

Q.—How many sizes of K triple valves are there? 

A.—Two, K-l and K-2. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


397 


Q.—Why are two sizes of K valves used? 

A.—The K-l valve is used with an eight-inch brake cylinder, 
for cars weighing from 22,000 pounds to 37,000; the K-2 valve, 
with ten-inch brake cylinder, for cars weighing from 37,000 
pounds to 58,000 pounds. The K-l valve may be used in place of 
the F-36 and the K-2 valve in place of the H-49. 

Q.—How may the K-l valve be distinguished from the K-2 
valve? 

A.—Each valve is marked on the side, with its designating 
number; and again the K-2 valve has three bolt holes, while the 
K-l has but two, in the reservoir flange. 

Q.—Name the different parts of the triple valve. 

A.—Referring to the numbered parts in Figure 1: 

Q.—Name the different ports in the K-l triple valve, and state 
their purpose. 

A.—Port r is the brake cylinder port, and it is through this 
port that the auxiliary reservoir air passes to the brake cylinder 
when making either a service or emergency application of the 
brake. Port y is the quick-service port, and it is through this port 
that the brake pipe air flows to the brake cylinder, when the 
triple valve moves to quick-service position. Port p is the exhaust 
port, through which the air from the brake cylinder escapes to 
the atmosphere when releasing the brake. Port Z is the service 
port, through which the auxiliary reservoir air passes on its way 
through port r to the brake cylinder in a service application of the 
brake. Port s is the emergency port, and through this port 
auxiliary reservoir air passes on its way to port r and the brake 
cylinder, in an emergency application of the brake. Port t is an 
emergency port and leads from the seat of the main slide valve 
to the chamber above the emergency piston, and it is through 
this port that the auxiliary reservoir air passes to the top of the 
emergency piston, when an emergency application of the brake is 
made. Port q and o when connected by the cavity v in the 
graduating valve, as in quick-service position, connects port y 
with port t. 

Q.—How many different positions has the K triple valve? 

A.—Seven. 

Q.—Name the different positions. 

A.—Full release and charging position, quick-service position, 
full-service position, quick-service lap position, full-service lap 
position, retarded release and charging position and emergency 
position. 



398 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



NAMES OF PARTS 


2 Vavle Body. 

3 Slide Valve. 

4 Main Piston. 

5 Piston Ring. 

6 Slide Valve Spring. 

7 Graduating Valve. 

8 Emergency Piston. 

9 Emergency Valve Seat. 

10 Emergency Valve. 

11 Emergency Valve Rubber 
Seat. 

12 Check Valve Spring. 

13 Check Valve Case. 

14 Check Valve Case Gasket. 

15 Check Valve. 


16 Air Strainer. 

17 Union Nut. 

18 Union Swivel. 

19 Cylinder Cap. 

20 Graduating Stem Nut. 

21 Graduating Stem. 

22 Graduating Spring. 

23 Cylinder Cap Gasket. 

24 Bolt and Nut. 

27 Union Gasket. 

28 Emergency Valve Nut. 

29 Retarding Device Body. 

31 Retarding Stem. 

33 Retarding Spring. 

35 Graduating Valve Spring, 



































































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


399 









Q 

z 

UJ 

z 
o 

K 
co 
0 . 

FACE VIEW 

GRADUATING VALVE 





FACE VIEW 
SLIDE VALVE 



SLIDE VALVE SEAT 

Graduating Valve, Slide Valve and Slide Valve Seat, 
K-l Triple Valve. 


PISTON END 





















400 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q — Is there any difference in the method in the charging of 
the auxiliary reservoir, where the K-2 triple valve is used? 

A.—Yes. With the K-2 triple valve in addition to the air 
passing through the feed groove i, there is a port in the slide 
valve which stands directly over port y in the valve seat, when 
the triple valve is in full release and charging position. Through 
this port brake pipe air from chamber Y may flow to the slide 
valve chamber and on to the auxiliary reservoir; thus charging 
the auxiliary reservoir through two ports. 

Q.—Are the feed grooves the same size in the K-l and K-2 
triple valves? 

A.—Yes. 

Q.—With feed groove I the same size in the K-l and K-2 valves, • 
will not the auxiliary reservoir of the K-2 valve charge quicker, 
due to air feeding through two ports, than the auxiliary reservoir 
of the K-l valve, which is charged through one port only? 

A.—No; as the K-2 triple valve is used with an auxiliary 
reservoir much larger than that used with the K-l valve; and 
these ports are so proportioned that each triple valve will charge 
its auxiliary reservoir in the same length of time. 

Q.—Is the auxiliary reservoir charged through the two ports 
of the K-2 triple valve when in retarded release position? 

A.—No; in this position the slide valve blanks port y and all 
air going to the auxiliary reservoir must pass through the feed 
groove i the same as with the K-l valve; in other words, the K-2 
valve charges its auxiliary reservoir through one port only, when 
in retarded release position. 

Q.—As the feed groove I is the same size in the K-l and K-2 
valves and the auxiliary reservoir used with the K-l valve much 
smaller than the one used with the K-2, will not the auxiliary 
reservoir of the K-l valve charge much quicker than that of 
the K-2? 

A.—No; as when the triple valves are in retarded release 
position the shoulder on the left or auxiliary side of the triple 
piston comes in contact with the slide valve bushing, closing the 
opening to the slide valve chamber except the feed groove in the 
shoulder of the piston, and therefore it is this groove that regu¬ 
lates the flow of air to the auxiliary reservoir when the triple 
valve is in retarded release position. The feed groove in K-2 
valve is larger than that in the K-l, therefore both auxiliary 
reservoirs are charged in the same time. 

Q.—What other benefits are obtained by retarding the recharge 
of the auxiliary reservoirs on the forward portion of the train? 

A.—This retarded recharge of the auxiliaries on the head end 
of the train permits a greater volume of air to flow to the rear 
of the train, thus securing a more prompt rise of brake pipe 
pressure in this part of the train, thereby insuring a more prompt 
release and recharge of the rear brakes. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


401 


Q.—With these different new features, will the K valves work 
in harmony with the older type of valves? 

A.—Yes; not only work in harmony, but will assist the older 
type of valves to perform properly in both the application and 
release of the brake. 

Q.—With the triple valve in quick-service position, is the 
service port Z fully open to the brake cylinder port r? 

A.—No; just a sufficient opening is made in the port to allow 
auxiliary-reservoir air to reduce by passing to the brake cylinder 
as fast as the pressure is reducing in the brake pipe, as it will be 
understood that if the auxiliary reservoir pressure reduced more 
rapid than that in the brake pipe, the triple valve would move 
to lap position. 

Q.—How is the triple valve affected by the brake pipe pressure 
dropping more quickly than that in the auxiliary reservoir 
through the partially open service port Z? 

A.—If the brake pipe pressure reduced more rapidly than that 
in the auxiliary reservoir, as with short trains, or where heavy 
brake pipe leakage is found, the higher auxiliary reservoir pres¬ 
sure will cause the triple piston 4 to move farther to the right, 
slightly compressing the graduating spring 22, and move the slide 
valve 3 to full service position. 

Q.—With the brake pipe pressure being reduced at the brake 
valve and each triple valve when in quick-service position, taking 
air from the brake pipe, is there not danger of the brake pipe 
pressure being reduced so rapidly as to cause undesired quick 
action *of the brakes? 

A.—No; for as explained in replying to the preceding question, 
when there is a rapid drop in brake pipe pressure the triple valves 
move to full service position, thereby closing the quick-service 
ports, thus delaying the drop in brake pipe pressure. 

Q.—Will the brake pipe air flowing through the quick-service 
ports to the chamber above the emergency piston create sufficient 
pressure to move the piston down and cause quick action? 

A.—No; as the fit of the emergency piston in its cylinder is 
such that the brake pipe air coming through the small quick- 
service ports can pass by the piston to chamber X and the brake 
cylinder as rapidly as it enters the chamber above the piston, 
therefore no pressure is developed above the piston. 

Q.—When making a service application of the brake, how 
long will the triple valve remain in either of its service positions? 

A.—Just so long as the auxiliary reservoir pressure is greater 
than that in the brake pipe, the triple valve will remain in service 
position, and auxiliary ’reservoir air will flow to the brake 
cylinder, until the pressure in the auxiliary reservoir and brake 
cylinder have equalized. 

Q.—How many positions of lap are there? 

A.—Two, quick-service lap and full-service lap. 




402 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—What is the difference between quick-service lap and full- 
service lap positions? 

A. —In quick-service lap position, the quick-service ports o and 
q in the slide valve are still in register with the quick-service 
ports y and t in the seat; while in full-service lap the ports y 
and t are closed by the slide valve 3. 

Q.—How much of a reduction is necessary to set the brakes 
in full? 

A.—Twenty pounds. 

Q.—Why? 

A. —The size of the auxiliary reservoir is so proportioned to 
the size of the brake cylinder, that with a pressure of 70 pounds 
in the auxiliary reservoir, and eight-inch piston travel, the 
auxiliary pressure will equalize into the brake cylinder at 50 
pounds; in other words, 20 pounds from the auxiliary reservoir 
will make 50 pounds in the brake cylinder, and leave 50 pounds 
in the auxiliary reservoir, thus causing equalization. 

Q.—Will the exhaust at the brake valve be as long, for a given 
reduction, when operating a train of K triple valves as with the 
older type of valves? 

A. —No; the length of the exhaust will be only about one-half. 

Q.—Explain how the brakes are released. 

A. —To release the brakes the brake-valve handle is placed in 
release position, creating a large and direct opening from the 
main reservoir to the brake pipe, causing a rise of pressure in the 
brake pipe throughout the train. When the pressure on the brake 
pipe side of the triple piston is sufficient to overcome the auxiliary 
reservoir pressure, and the friction of the triple piston 4 and 
slide valve 3, the triple valve will move to one of its release 
positions. 

Q.—How many release positions has the K triple valve? 

A. —Two: Full release and retarded release positions. 

Q.—When making a release of the brakes, which of its release 
positions will it assume? 

A.—This depends entirely on how the brake pipe pressure is 
increased in relation to the auxiliary reservoir pressure. If the 
rate of increase be slow, as, for example, on the rear portion of a 
long train, the triple valve will move to full release position; how¬ 
ever, in the forward portion of the train, where the brake pipe 
pressure builds up more rapidly than the auxiliary reservoirs can 
recharge, the triple valves will move to retarded release position. 

Q.—Explain why the triple valves on the rear portion of the 
train move to full release position, while those on the forward 
portion move to retarded release position. 

A.—When the brake pipe pressure, in chamber h , has been 
increased sufficient to overcome the auxiliary reservoir pressure 
and the friction of the triple piston 4, and slide valve 3, these 
parts will move to the left until the end of the piston stem and 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


403 


slide valve strike the retarding stem 31, which stops their move¬ 
ment, holding the triple in full release and charging position. 
However, if the brake pipe pressure builds up more rapidly than 
the auxiliary reservoirs can recharge, an excess of pressure will 
build up in chamber h. over that in the auxiliary reservoirs, and 
will cause the triple piston to move farther to the left, compres¬ 
sing the retarding spring 33 until the shoulder oh the left or 
auxiliary side of the triple piston strikes the slide valve bushing. 
Therefore if the rise of brake pipe pressure be slow, the triple 
valve will move to full release and charging position; if quick, 
the triple valve will move to retarded release position. 

• Q.—What difference in pressure is required between the brake 
pipe and auxiliary reservoir to compress the retarding spring 33, 
and cause the triple valve to move to retarded release position? 

A.—About three pounds. 

Q.—When releasing the brakes on a train of fifty cars or more, 
with the brake valve in release position, how far back in the 
train will the triple valves move to retarded release position? 

A.—Retarted release may be had on about the first thirty 
cars in the train. 

Q.—Why can retarded release be had on the first thirty cars 
only; why not on the entire train? 

A.—Because it is impossible, with a long train, to raise the 
brake pipe pressure three pounds above the auxiliary reservoir 
pressure on more than the first thirty cars in the train. 

Q.—What prevents as prompt a rise of pressure on the rear 
portion of a long train as on the head portion? 

A.—This is caused by the frictional resistance offered to the 
flow of the air through the angle cocks, cut-out cocks, hose coup¬ 
lings and the brake pipe. 

Q.—When releasing the brakes on a long train without stop¬ 
ping, and with K triple valves on the head portion of the train, 
can the release be made with greater safety, and at lower speed, 
than with the older type of triple valves? 

A.—Yes; as with the K triple valves we have the benefit of the 
retarded release on the first thirty cars, which will hold the slack 
bunched, while the brakes on the rear portion are releasing. 

Q.—Is there as much air used in handling a train equipped 
with K triple valves as with a similar train equipped with the 
older type of triple valves? 

A.—No; as a portion of the brake pipe air goes to the brake 
cylinders, therefore not requiring as heavy a reduction to obtain 
the same braking power as with the older type of valves. The 
great saving of air, however, is brought about by the prompt and 
uniform application of all brakes throughout the train. 

Q.—What increase of brake cylinder pressure is obtained, due 
to brake pipe air going to the brake cylinder through the quick- 
service ports? 

A.—The pressure equalizes at about one pound higher than 
that obtained with the older type of triple valve. 






404 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Q.—Is the quick-service feature operative on short trains? 

A.—No; whenever the brake pipe pressure can be reduced at 
the brake valve faster than the auxiliary reservoir air can flow 
to the brake cylinder through the partly opened brake cylinder 
port obtained in quick-service position, the triple valve will move 
to full service position, thereby cutting out the quick-service 
feature. 

Q.—How should a stuck brake be bled off? 

A.—By opening the auxiliary reservoir release valve until a 
discharge of air is heard at the retainer. 

Q.—What will be the effect if the release valve is held open 
some time after the discharge is heard at the retainer? 

A.—The triple valve will move to retarded release position, 
therefore be more slow in releasing. 

Q.—When using a 70-pound brake pipe pressure, what pressure 
is developed in the brake cylinder in an emergency application? 

A.—About 60 pounds. 

Q.—When making an emergency application of the brake, is 
the air taken from the brake pipe to the brake cylinders at the 
same rate as when making a quick-service application? 

A.—No. In an emergency application the brake pipe air is 
free to flow through a large and what might be termed direct 
opening to the brake cylinder, raising the pressure quickly, and 
at the same time causing a sudden drop of pressure in the brake 
pipe; this sudden reduction starts the next triple, and that starts 
the next, and so on throughout the train. Therefore, if from any 
cause one triple valve goes into quick action, all will follow. 

Q.—What is the time required to apply the brakes in quick 
action throughout a train of 50 cars? 

A.—About three seconds. 

Q.—How are brakes released after an emergency application? 

A.—They are released in the same manner as after a service 
application but require longer time, owing to the high auxiliary 
reservoir pressure, and the low brake pipe pressure. 

Q.—What causes the triple valve to work quick-action when 
a service reduction is made? 

A.—Generally speaking, this is caused by high friction of the 
triple piston and slide valve. 

Q.—How will a weak or broken graduating spring affect the 
operation of the triple valve? 

A.—The effect produced by a weak or broken graduating spring 
depends on the length of the train, or, to be more correct, on the 
rate at which the brake pipe pressure is being reduced. The duty 
of this spring is to prevent the parts of the triple valve from 
moving past service position during a service reduction of the 
brake pipe pressure. If the spring be broken or is too weak to 
stop the parts at service position, and if the train be short, say 
six cars or less, the triple valve will move to emergency position, 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


405 


applying the brakes in quick action. However, with a long train, 
the graduating spring may be weak or broken; in fact, it may be 
removed, and the brakes will not work quick action. The reason 
for this is as follows: When a service reduction is made, the 
graduating valve opens a port in the slide valve, and when the 
slide valve moves so that the service port registers with the brake 
cylinder port in the seat, the auxiliary reservoir air begins to 
discharge to the brake cylinder. Now, whether the parts will 
remain in service position, or move to emergency position, de¬ 
pends on whether the brake pipe or auxiliary reservoir pressure 
reduces the more quickly. With a short train, say six cars or 
less, the brake pipe volume is comparatively small, and its pres¬ 
sure can be reduced at the brake valve at a much greater rate 
than the auxiliary reservoir pressure can be reduced to the brake 
cylinder through the service port Z, and as soon as a sufficient 
difference in pressure is formed the triple piston and slide valve 
will move to emergency position, causing undesired quick action. 
However with a long train, where the brake pipe volume is large, 
its pressure cannot be reduced through the exhaust port of the 
brake valve as fast as the auxiliary reservoir pressure can be 
reduced to the brake cylinder through the service port Z; there¬ 
fore, the pressure on both sides of the triple piston will remain 
about the same, and a sufficient difference of pressure is not 
obtained to move the parts to emergency position. 

Q.—What will cause a blow at the triple valve exhaust port? 

A.—A leaky check valve, a leaky case gasket, a leaky emerg¬ 
ency valve, a leaky slide valve, a leaky triple valve body gasket, 
or a leak, in the induction tube. 

Q.—Where does the air come from when a blow exists at the 
triple exhaust port? 

A.—It may be from the brake pipe or the auxiliary reservoir, 
depending on what is at fault. 

Q.—Name the parts that would cause an auxiliary reservoir 
leak. 

A.—A leaky slide valve, a leaky induction tube, or a leaky 
triple valve body gasket. 

Q.—Name the parts that would cause a leak from the brake 

pipe. 

A.—Check valve case gasket or an emergency valve. 

Q.—How would you test to determine whether the leakage was 
coming from the brake pipe or auxiliary reservoir? 

A.—First charge the brake, then close the cut-out cock in the 
cross-over pipe; if the brake applies, it indicates that the leak 
is coming from the brake pipe, and would be a leak past the 
emergency valve 10 or the check valve case gasket 14. If the 
brake does not apply, the leak is in the auxiliary reservoir. 

Q.—How would you test for a leaky slide valve? 



406 


ENGINBMEN’S MANUAL 


A.—A leaky slide valve will generally cause a blow at the 
exhaust port of the triple valve, regardless of whether the brake 
is set or released, as in either position the exhaust cavity in the 
face of the slide valve 3 is over the exhaust port p in the seat of 
the valve, therefore any air leaking into the exhaust cavity will 
be free to go out the exhaust port, thus causing a blow. With 
a leaky slide valve, there is a tendency for the brake to release, 
since it is auxiliary reservoir pressure that is being reduced. 

Q.—How would you test for a leaky emergency valve? 

A.—When an emergency valve leaks, air passes from the brake 
pipe to the brake cylinder through chamber Y. If the triple valve 
is in release position the air leaking past the emergency valve 
will escape to the atmosphere through the exhaust port; if the 
brake is set, this air can not escape, but will go to the brake 
cylinder, and the brake pipe and brake cylinder pressure will 
equalize, and apply the brake on this car hard; that is, with a 
long train, where the brake pipe volume is comparatively great, 
the brake cylinder pressure obtained will be so high that the 
wheels on this car will, no doubt, be slid. Also in the release of 
the train brake, this brake will in all probability stick, due to the 
high equalization of the auxiliary reservoir and the brake 
cylinder pressure. 

Q.—What may sometimes be done to overcome the trouble of 
air leaking past an emergency valve? 

A.—A light tap on the outside of the triple valve, or making 
an emergency application of the brake on the car having the 
defective valve, will sometimes cause the emergency valve to seat 
properly and stop the blow. 

Q.—If the blow cannot be stopped in the manner just de¬ 
scribed, what should be done? 

A.—The brake should be cut out. 

Q.—How would you cut out a brake? 

A.—By closing the cut-out cock in the cross-over .pipe and 
bleeding the auxiliary reservoir. 

Q.—How will a leaky check-valve case gasket affect the brake 
cylinder pressure? 

A.—Much the same as a leak past the emergency valve. 

Q.—How will a leaky induction tube or triple valve body 
gasket affect the brake cylinder pressure? 

A.—As both of these are auxiliary reservoir leaks, the tendency 
will be to first raise the brake cylinder pressure, and later cause 
the brake to release. 

Q-—Will a leak past the graduating valve cause a blow at the 
triple valve exhaust port? 

A.—No. 

Q-—How will a leaky graduating valve affect the operation 
of the triple valve? 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


407 


A.—The triple will not be affected in release position as the 
service port Z is now closed by the slide valve seat, therefore it 
will make no difference whether the service port is open or closed 
by the graduating valve. However, after a partial service applica¬ 
tion when the triple valve has moved to lap position, a leak past 
the graduating valve will allow the auxiliary reservoir air to 
pass through the service port Z and brake cylinder port r to the 
brake cylinder, thus applying the brake harder, and at the same 
time reducing auxiliary reservoir pressure. This reduction of 
auxiliary reservoir pressure has a tendency to release the brake; 
whether or not it releases depends on the amount of brake pipe 
leakage, and the leakage past the triple piston packing ring. If 
this leakage be greater than that of the graduating valve, the 
brake will stay set; if not, the brake will release. 



Rules and Instructions for 
Inspection and Testing 
of Steam Locomotives 
and Tenders 

IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE ACT OF MARCH 4, 1915, 
AMENDING THE ACT OF FEBRUARY 17, 1911. 

1. The railroad company will be held responsible for the 
general design, construction, and maintenance of locomotives and 
tenders under its control. 

2. The mechanical officer in charge at each point where 
repairs are made, will he held responsible for the inspection and 
repair of all parts of locomotives and tenders under his jurisdic¬ 
tion. He must know that inspections are made as required and 
that the defects are properly repaired before the locomotive is 
returned to service. 

3. The term “inspector” as used in these rules and instruc¬ 
tions means, unless otherwise specified, the railroad company’s 
inspector. 

4. Each locomotive and tender shall be inspected after each 
trip, or day’s work, and the defects found reported on an approved 
form to the proper representative of the company. This form 
shall show the name of the railroad, the initials and number of 
the locomotive, the place, date, and time of the inspection, the 
defects found, and the signature of the employe making the 
inspection. The report shall be approved by the foreman, with 
proper written explanation made thereon for defects reported 
which were not repaired before the locomotive is returned to 
service. The report shall then be filed in the office of the rail¬ 
road company at the place where the inspection is made. 


ASH PANS 

5. Ash pans shall be securely supported and maintained in 
safe and suitable condition for service. 

Locomotives built after January 1, 1916, shall have ash pans 
supported from mud rings or frames. Locomotives built prior to 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


409 


January 1, 1916, which do not have the ash pans supported from 
mud rings or frames shall he changed when the locomotive 
receives new fire-box. 

The operating mechanism of all ash pans shall be so arranged 
that it may be safely operated, and maintained in safe and suit¬ 
able condition for service. 

No part of ash pan shall be less than 2y 2 inches above the rail. 


BRAKE AND SIGNAL EQUIPMENT 

6. It must be known before each trip that the brakes on 
locomotives and tender are in safe and suitable condition for 
service; that the air compressor or compressors are in condition 
to provide an ample supply of air for the service in which the 
locomotive is put; that the devices for regulating all pressures are 
properly performing their functions; that the brake valves work 
properly in all positions; and that the water has been drained 
from the air brake system. 

7. Compressors. The compressor or compressors shall be 
tested for capacity by orifice test as often as conditions may re¬ 
quire, but not less frequently than once each three months. 

The diameter of orifice, speed of compressor, and the air pres¬ 
sure to be maintained for compressors in common use are given 
in the following table: 


MAKE 

Size com¬ 
pressor 

Single 
strokes per 
minute 

Diameter 
of orifice, 
inches 

Air 

pressure 

maintained 

pounds 

Westinghouse _ - _ 

9 'H 

120 


60 

Do__ 

11 

100 

'16 

60 

Do_ 

83^cc 

100 

& 

60 

New York _ _ _ 

2a 

120 

aFb - 

60 

Do_ 

6a 

100 

' M 

60- 

Do_ 

5b 

100 


60 


For diagram of orifice see figure No. 14. 

This table shall be used for altitudes to and including 1,000 
feet. For altitudes over 1,000 feet the speed of compressor may 
be increased 5 single strokes per minute for each 1,000 feet in¬ 
crease in altitude. 

8. Testing main reservoirs. Every main reservoir before being 
put into service, and at least once each twelve months thereafter, 
shall be subjected to hydrostatic pressure not less than 25 per 
cent above the maximum allowed air pressure. 
























410 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


The entire surface of the reservoir shall be hammer tested 
each time the locomotive is shopped for general repairs, but not 
less frequently than once each eighteen months. 

9. Air gauges. Air gauges shall be so located that they may 
be conveniently read by the engineer from his usual position in 
the cab. Air gauges shall be tested at least once each three 
months, and also when any irregularity is reported. 

Air gauges shall be compared with an accurate test gauge or 
dead weight tester, and gauges found incorrect shall be repaired 
before they are returned to service. 

10. Time of cleaning. Distributing or control valves, reduc¬ 
ing valves, triple valves, straight-air double-check valves, dirt 
collectors, and brake cylinders shall be cleaned, and brake cylin¬ 
ders lubricated as often as conditions require to maintain them 
in a safe and suitable condition for service, but not less frequently 
than once each six months. 

11. Stenciling dates of tests and cleaning. The date of testing 
or cleaning, and the initials of the shop or station at which the 
work is done, shall be legibly stenciled in a conspicuous place on 
the parts, or placed on a card displayed under glass in the cab 
of the locomotive, or stamped on metal tags. When metal tags 
are used, the height of letters and figures shall be not less than 
three-eighths inch, and the tags located as follows: • 

One securely attached to brake pipe near automatic brake 
valve, which will show the date on which the distributing valve, 
control valve or triple valves, reducing valves, straight-air double¬ 
check valves, dirt collectors, and brake cylinders were cleaned 
and cylinders lubricated. 

One securely attached to air compressor steam pipe, which 
will show the date on which the compressor was tested by orifice 
test. 

One securely attached to the return pipe near main reservoir, 
which will show the date on which the hydrostatic test was ap¬ 
plied to main reservoirs. 

12. Piston .travel. The minimum piston travel shall be suf¬ 
ficient to provide proper brake shoe clearance when the brakes 
are released. 

The maximum piston travel when locomotive is standing shall 
be as follows: 

Inches. 


Cam type of driving-wheel brake. 3^ 

Other forms of driving-wheel brake. 6 

Engine-truck brake . 8 

Tender brake . 9 


13. Foundation brake gear. Foundation brake gear shall be 
maintained in a safe and suitable condition for service. Levers, 
rods, brake beams, hangers, and pins shall be of ample strength, 
and shall not be fouled in any way which will affect the proper 







ENGINEMAN’S MANUAL 


411 


operation of the brake. All pins shall be properly secured in 
place with cotters, split keys, or nuts. Brake shoes must be 
properly applied and kept approximately in line with the tread 
of the wheel. 

No part of the foundation brake gear of the locomotive or 
tender shall be less than 2 y 2 inches above the rails. 

14. Leakage. Main reservoir leakage; leakage from main 
reservoir and related piping shall not exceed an average of 
three pounds per minute in a test of three minutes’ duration, 
made after the pressure has been reduced 40 per cent below 
maximum pressure. 

Brake pipe leakage shall not exceed five pounds per minute. 

Brake cylinder leakage. With a full service application from 
maximum brake pipe pressure, and with communication to the 
brake cylinders closed, the brakes on the locomotive and tender 
shall remain applied not less than five minutes. 

15.. Train signal system. The train signal system, when used, 
shall be tested and known to be in safe and suitable condition 
for service before each trip. 


CABS, WARNING SIGNALS, AND SANDERS 

16. Cabs. Cabs shall be securely attached or braced and main¬ 
tained in a safe and suitable condition for service. Cab windows 
shall be so located and maintained that the enginemen may have 
a clear view of track and signals from their usual and proper 
positions in the cab. 

Road locomotives used in regions where snowstorms are 
generally encountered shall be provided with what is known as a 
“clear vision” window, which is a window hinged at the top and 
placed in the glass in each front cab door or window. These 
windows shall be not less than five inches high, located as nearly 
as possible in line of the enginemen’s vision, and so constructed 
that they may be easily opened or closed. 

Steam pipes shall not be fastened to the cab. On new con¬ 
struction or when renewals are made of iron or steel pipe subject 
to boiler pressure in cabs, it shall be what is commercially known 
as double-strength pipe, with extra heavy valves and fittings. 

17. Cab aprons. Cab aprons shall be of proper length and 
width to insure safety. Aprons must be securely hinged, main¬ 
tained in a safe and suitable condition for service, and roughened, 
or other provision made, to afford secure footing. 

18 . 

19. Cylinder cocks. Necessary cylinder cocks, operative from 
cab of locomotive, shall be provided and maintained in a safe and 
suitable condition for service. 


i 




412 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


20. Sanders. Locomotives shall be equipped with proper sand¬ 
ing apparatus, which shall be maintained in safe and suitable 
condition for service, and tested before each trip. Sand pipes 
must be securely fastened in line with the rails. 

21. Whistle. Each locomotive must be provided with a suit¬ 
able steam whistle, so arranged that it may be conveniently 
operated by the engineer. 


DRAW GEAR AND DRAFT GEAR 

22. Draw gear between locomotive and tender. The draw gear 
between the locomotive and tender, together with the pins and 
fastenings, shall be maintained in safe and suitable condition 
for service. The pins and drawbar shall be removed and care¬ 
fully examined for defects not less frequently than once each 
three months. Suitable means for securing the drawbar pins in 
place shall be provided. Inverted drawbar pins shall be held in 
place by plate or stirrup. 

Two or more safety bars or safety chains of ample strength 
shall be provided between locomotive and tender, maintained in 
safe and suitable condition for service, and inspected at the same 
time draw gear is inspected. 

Safety chains or safety bars shall be of the minimum length 
consistent with the curvature of the railroad on which the loco¬ 
motive is operated. 

Lost motion between locomotives and tenders not equipped 
with spring buffers shall be kept to a minimum, and shall not 
exceed one-half inch. 

When spring buffers are used between locomotive and tender 
the springs shall be applied with not less than three-fourths inch 
compression, and shall at all times be under sufficient compres¬ 
sion to keep the chafing faces in contact. 

23. Chafing irons. Chafing irons of such radius as will permit 
proper curving shall be securely attached to locomotive and 
tender, and shall be maintained in condition to permit free move¬ 
ment laterally and vertically. 

24. Draft gear. Draft gear and attachments on locomotives 
and tenders shall be securely fastened, and maintained in safe 
and suitable condition for service. 


DRIVING GEAR 

25. Crosshcads. Crossheads shall be maintained in a safe and 
suitable condition for service, with not more than one-fourth inch 
vertical or five-sixteenths inch lateral play between crossheads 
and guides. 





ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


413 


26. Guides. Guides must be securely fastened and maintained 
in a safe and suitable condition for service. 

27. Pistons and piston rods. Pistons and piston rods shall be 
maintained in safe and suitable condition for service. Piston rods 
shall be carefully examined for cracks each time they are re¬ 
moved, and shall be renewed if found defective. 

All piston rods applied after January 1, 1916, shall have the 
date of application, original diameter, and kind of material legibly 
stamped on or near the end of rod. 

28. Rods, main and side. Cracked or defective main or side 
rods shall not be continued in service. 

Autogenous welding of broken or cracked main and side rods 
not permitted. 

Bearings and bushings shall so fit the rods as to be in a safe 
and suitable condition for service, and means be provided to 
prevent bushings turning in rod. Straps shall fit and be securely 
bolted to rods. 

The total amount of side motion of rods on crank pins shall 
not exceed one-fourth inch. 

Locomotives used in road service. The bore of main rod bear¬ 
ings shall not exceed pin diameters more than three thirty- 
seconds inch at front or back end. The total lost motion at both 
ends shall not exceed five thirty-seconds inch. 

The bore of side rod bearings shall not exceed pin diameters 
more than five thirty-seconds inch on main pin, nor more than 
three-sixteenths inch on other pins. 

Locomotives used in yard service. The bore of main rod 
bearings shall not exceed pin diameters more than one-eighth 
inch at front end or five thirty-seconds inch at back end. 

The bore of side rod bearings shall not exceed pin diameter 
more than three-sixteenths inch. 

Oil and grease cups shall be securely attached to rods, and 
grease cup plugs shall be equipped with suitable fastenings. 


LIGHTS 


29. 

30. Classification lamps. Each locomotive used in road service 
shall be provided with such classification lamps as may be re¬ 
quired by the rules of the railroad company operating the loco¬ 
motive. When such classification lamps are provided they shall 
be kept clean and maintained in safe and suitable condition for 
service. 

31. 

32. Cab lights. Each locomotive used between sunset and 
sunrise shall have cab lamps which will provide sufficient 
illumination for the steam, air, and water gauges to enable the 
enginemen .to make necessary and accurate readings from their 



414 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


usual and proper positions in the cab. These lights shall be so 
located and constructed that the light will shine only on those 
parts requiring illumination. Locomotives used in road service 
shall have an additional lamp conveniently located to enable the 
persons operating the locomotive to easily and accurately read 
train orders and time-tables, and so constructed that it may be 
readily darkened or extinguished. 

RUNNING GEAR 

33. Driving, trailing, and engine truck axles. Driving, trail¬ 
ing, and engine truck axles with any of the following defects 
shall not be continued in service: 

Bent axle; cut journals that cannot be made to run cool with¬ 
out turning; seamy journals in steel axles; transverse seams in 
iron axles, or any sqams in iron axles causing journals to run 
hot, or unsafe on account of usage, accident, or derailment; driv¬ 
ing, trailing, or engine truck axles more than one-half inch under 
original diameter, except for locomotives having all driving axles 
of the same diameter, when other than main driving axles, may 
be worn three-fourths inch below the original diameter. 

The date applied, the original diameter of the journal, and the 
kind of material shall be legibly stamped on one end of each 
driving axle, trailing truck axle, and engine truck axle applied 
after January 1, 1916. 

34. Tender truck axles. The minimum diameters of axles for 
various axle loads shall be as follows: 


AXLE LOAD 

Minimum 
diameter 
of Journal, 
inches 

Minimum 
diameter 
of wheel 
seat, 
inches 

Minimum 
diameter 
of center, 
inches 

50,000 pounds._ _ 

VA 

7Vs 

6 A 

38,000 pounds __ _ ___ 

5 

6% 

5 7 A 

31,000 pounds _ _ 

4^ 

m 

5A 

22,000 pounds. -_ 

3 H 

5 

4 M 

15,000 pounds ’ _____ 

3 X 

4 *A 

3 % 


35. Tender truck axles with any of the following defects shall 
not be continued in service: 

Bent axle; cut journals that cannot he made to run cool with¬ 
out turning; seamy journals in steel axles, or transverse seams in 
journals of iron axles, or unsafe on account of usage, accident, 
or derailment; collars broken or worn to one-fourth inch or less 
in thickness; fillet in back shoulder worn out. 
























ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


415 


36. Crank pins. Crank pins shall be securely applied. Shim¬ 
ming or prick punching crank pins will not he allowed. All 
crank pins applied after January 1, 1916, shall have the date 
applied and kind of material used legibly stamped on end of pin. 

Crank pin collars and collar bolts shall be maintained in a 
safe and suitable condition for service. 

37. Driving boxes. Driving boxes shall be maintained in a 
safe and suitable condition for service. Broken and loose bear¬ 
ings shall be renewed. Not more than one shim may be used 
between box and bearing. 

38. Driving box shoes ancl wedges. Driving box shoes and 
wedges shall be maintained in a safe and suitable condition for 
service. 

39. Frames. Frames, deck plates, tailpieces, pedestals, and 
braces shall be maintained in a safe and suitable condition for 
service, and shall be cleaned and thoroughly inspected each time 
the locomotive is in shop for heavy repairs. 

40. Lateral motion. The total lateral motion or play between 
the hubs of the wheels and the boxes on any pair of wheels shall 
not exceed the following limits: 

Inches. 


For engine truck wheels (trucks with swing centers). 1 

For engine truck wheels (trucks with rigid centers). 1 % 

For trailing truck wheels. 1 

For driving wheels (more than one pair). % 


These limits may be increased on locomotives operating on 
track where the curvature exceeds 20 degrees when it can be 
shown that conditions require additional lateral motion. 

The lateral motion shall in all cases be kept within such 
limits that the driving wheels, rods, or crank pins will not inter¬ 
fere with other parts of the locomotive. 

41. Pilots. Pilots shall be securely attached, properly braced, 
and maintained in a safe and suitable condition for service. 

The minimum clearance of pilot above the rail shall be three 
inches, and the maximum clearance six inches. 

42. Spring rigging. Springs and equalizers shall be arranged 
to insure the proper distribution of weight to the various wheels 
of the locomotive, maintained approximately level, and in a safe 
and suitable condition for service. 

Springs or spring rigging with any of the following defects 
shall be renewed or properly repaired: 

One long leaf or two or more shorter leaves broken. 

Springs with leaves working in band. 

Broken coil springs. 

Broken driving box saddle, equalizer, hanger, bolt, or pin. 

43. Trucks , leading and trailing. Trucks shall be maintained 
in safe and suitable condition for service. Center plates shall fit 
properly, and the male center plate shall extend into the female 







416 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


center plate not less than three-fourths inch. All centering de¬ 
vices shall be properly maintained. 

A suitable safety chain shall be provided at each front corner 
of all four-wheel engine trucks. 

All parts of trucks shall have sufficient clearance to prevent 
them from seriously interfering with any other part of the 
locomotive. 

44. Wheels. Wheels shall be securely pressed on axles. Prick 
punching or shimming the wheel fit will not be permitted. The 
diameter of wheels on the same axle shall not vary more than 
three thirty-seconds inch. 

Wheels used on standard gauge track will be out of gauge if 
the inside gauge of flanges, measured on base line, is less than 
53 inches or more than 53% inches. 

The distance back to back of flanges of wheels mounted on the 
same axle shall not vary more than one-fourth inch. 

45. Cast iron or cast steel wheels. Cast iron or cast steel 
wheels with any of the following defects shall not be continued 
in service: 

Slid flat. When the flat spot is 2 y 2 inches or over in length; 
or if there are two or more adjoining spots each 2 inches or over 
in length. 

Broken or chipped flange. If the chip exceeds iy 2 inches in 
length and one-half inch in width. 

Broken rim. If the tread, measured from the flange at a point 
five-eighths inch above the tread, is less than 3% inches in width. 

Shelled out. Wheels with defective treads on account of 
cracks or shell out spots 2% inches or over, or so numerous as to 
endanger the safety of the wheel. 

Brake lourn. Wheels having defective tread on account of 
cracks or shelling out due to heating. 

Seams one-half inch long or over, at a distance of one-half 
inch or less from the throat of the flange, or seams 3 inches or 
more in length, if such seams are within the limits of 3% inches 
from the flange, measured at a point five-eights inch from the 
tread. 

Worn flanges. Wheels on axles with journals 5 inches by 
9 inches or over with flanges having flat vertical surfaces ex¬ 
tending seven-eighths inch or more from the tread, or flanges 
1 inch thick or less gauged at a point three-eighths inch above 
tread. Wheels on axles with journals less than 5 inches by 9 
inches with flanges having flat vertical surfaces extending 1 inch 
or more from the tread, or flanges fifteen-sixteenths inch thick 
or less, gauged at a point three-eighths inch above the tread. 

Tread worn hollow. If the tread is worn sufficiently hollow to 
render the flange or rim liable to breakage. 

Burst. If the wheel is cracked from the wheel fit outward. 

Cracked tread, cracked plate, or one or more cracked brackets. 




ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


417 


Wheels out of gauge. 

Wheels loose on axle. 

Note— The determination of flat spots, worn flanges, and 
broken rims shall be made by a gauge as shown in figure 8, and 
its application to defective wheels as shown in figures 9, 10, 11, 
12, and 13. 

46. Forged steel or steel tired wheels. Forged steel or steel 
tired whels with any of the following defects shall not be con¬ 
tinued in service: 

Loose wheels; loose, broken, or defective retaining rings or 
tires; broken or cracked hubs, plates, spokes, or bolts. 

Slid flat spot 2 y 2 inches or longer; or, if there are two or 
more adjoining spots, each 2 inches or longer. 

Defective tread on account of cracks or shelled out spots 2% 
inches or longer, or so numerous as to endanger the safety of 
the wheel. 

Broken flange. 

Flange worn to fifteen-sixteenths inch or less in thickness, 
gauged at a point three-eighths inch above the tread, or having 
flat vertical surface 1 inch or more from tread; tread worn five- 
sixteenths inch; flange more than iy 2 inches from tread to top 
of flange, or thickness of tires or rims less than shown in figures 
4, 5, 6, and 7. 

Wheels out of gauge. 

47. Driving and trailing wheels. Driving and trailing wheel 
centers with divided rims shall be properly fitted with iron or 
steel filling blocks before the tires are applied, and such filling 
blocks shall be properly maintained. When shims are inserted 
between the tire and the wheel center, not more than two thick¬ 
nesses of shims may be used, one of which must extend entirely 
around the wheel. 

48. Driving wheel counterbalance shall be maintained in a 
safe and suitable condition for service. 

49. Driving and trailing wheels with any of the following 
defects shall not be continued in service: 

Driving or trailing wheel centers with three adjacent spokes, 
or 25 per cent of the spokes in wheel broken. 

Loose wheels; loose, broken, or defective tires or tire fasten¬ 
ings; broken or cracked hubs, or wheels out of gauge. 

50. Driving and trailing wheel tires. The minimum height of 
flange for driving and trailing wheel tires, measured from tread, 
shall be 1 inch for locomotive used in road service, except for 
locomotives origin'ally constructed for plain tires, when the 
minimum height of flange on one pair of wheels may he seven- 
eighths inch. 

The minimum height of flange for driving wheel tires, 
measured from tread, shall be seven-eighths inch for locomotives 
used in switching service. 




418 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


The maximum taper for tread of tires from throat of flange to 
outside of tire, for driving and trailing wheels for locomotives 
used in road service, shall be one-fourth inch, and for locomotives 
used in switching service five-sixteenths inch. 

The minimum width of tires for driving and trailing wheels 
of standard gauge locomotives shall be 5% inches for flanged 
tires, and 6 inches for plain tires. 

The minimum width of tires for driving and trailing wheels of 
narrow gauge locomotives shall be 5 inches for flanged tires, and 
5 y <2 inches for plain tires. 

When all tires are turned or new tires applied to driving and 
trailing wheels, the diameter of the wheels on the same axle, or 
in the same driving wheel base, shall not vary more than three 
thirty-seconds inch. When a single tire is applied the diameter 
must not vary more than three thirty-seconds inch from that of 
the opposite wheel on the same axle. When a single pair of tires 
is applied the diameter must be within three thirty-seconds inch 
of the average diameter of the wheels in the driving wheel base 
to which they are applied. 

Driving and trailing wheel tires with any of the following 
defects shall not be continued in service: 

Slid flat spot 2 y 2 inches or more in length; flange fifteen- 
sixteenths inch or less in thickness, gauged at a point three- 
eighths inch above the tread, or having flat vertical surface one 
inch or more from tread; tread worn hollow five-sixteenths inch 
on locomotives used in road service, or three-eighths inch on 
locomotives used in switching service; flange more than 1 y 2 
inches from tread to top of flange. (See figures 1, 2, and 3.) 

Note. —The determination of flat spots and worn flanges shall 
be made by a gauge as shown in figure 8, and its application to 
defective tires as shown in figures 9, 10, and 11. 

51. Minimum thickness for driving wheel and trailer tires on 
standard and narrow gauge locomotives: 




Weight per axle (weight on drivers 
divided by number of pairs 
of driving wheels). 

Diameter of wheel 
center, inches 

Minimum 

service 

Road 

service, 

inches 

thickness, 
i limits 
Switching 
service, 
inches 

30,000 pounds and under __ . 

44 and under 

IX 

1 Vs 


Over 44 to 50 

1 A 

1 A 


Over 50 to 56 

IVs 

ix 


Over 56 to 62 

1 A 

1 A 


Over 62 to 68 

ix 



Over 68 to 74 

1 A 



Over 74 

l 5 A 


Over 30,000 to 35,000 pounds_ 

44 and under 

1 A 

1 A 


Over 44 to 50 

m 

ix 


Over 50 to 56 

1 TS 

1 A 


Over 56 to 62 

l X 

ix 


Over 62 to 68 

1 TS 



Over 68 to 74 

ix 



Over 74 

1 tt 


Over 35,000 to 40,000 pounds_ 

44 and under 

ix 

ix 


Over 44 to 50 

1 A 

1 A 


Over 50 to 56 

IX 

ix 


Over 56 to 62 

1 A 

1 A 


Over 62 to 68 

m 



Over 68 to 74 

1 tt 



Over 74 

i % 


Over 40,000 to 45,000 pounds_ 

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1 A 


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IX 

m 


Over 50 to 56 

1 A 

1 A 


Over 56 to 62 

1 S A 

IX 


Over 62 to 68 

ltt 



Over 68 to 74 

IX 



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1 If 


Over 45,000 to 50,000 pounds_ 

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IX 

ix 


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1 16 

1 A 


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1 % 

ix 


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1 tt 

1 A 


Over 62 to 68 

ix 



Over 68 to 74 

1 tt 



Over 74 

1 U 


Over 50,000 to 55,000 pounds_ 

44 and under 

1A 

1 A 


Over 44 to 50 


ix 


Over 50 to 56 

ltt 

1A 


Over 56 to 62 

IX 

ix 


Over 62 to 68 

ltt 



Over 68 to 74 

i X 



Over74._. _ 

ltt 


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44 and under 

1% 

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ltt 

1 A 


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ix 

1 6 A 


Over 56 to 62 

ltt 

ltt 


Over 62 to 68 

1% 



Over 68 to 74 

ltt 



Over 74. 

2 












































420 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


When retaining rings are used, measurements of tires to be 
taken from the outside circumference of the ring, and the mini¬ 
mum thickness of tires may be as much below the limits specified 
above as the tires extend between the retaining rings, provided it 
does not reduce the thickness of the tire to less than 1% inches 
from the throat of flange to the counterbore for the retaining 
ring. 

The minimum thickness for driving wheel tires shall be 1 
inch for locomotives operated on track of 2-foot gauge. 


TENDERS 

52. Tender frames. Tender frames shall be maintained in a 
safe and suitable condition for service. 

The difference in height between the deck on the tender and 
the cab floor or deck on the locomotive shall not exceed 1% inches. 

The minimum width of the gangway between locomotive and 
tender, while standing on straight track, shall he 16 inches. 

53. Feed water tanks. Tanks shall be maintained free from 
leaks, and in safe and suitable condition for service. Suitable 
screens must be provided for tank wells or tank hose. 

Not less frequently than once each month the interior of the 
tank shall be inspected, and cleaned if necessary. 

Top of tender behind fuel space shall be kept clean, and means 
provided to carry off waste water. Suitable covers shall be 
provided for filling holes. 

54. Oil tanks. The oil tanks on oil burning locomotives shall 
be maintained free from leaks. An automatic safety cutout valve, 
which may be operated by hand from inside and outside of cab, 
shall be provided for the oil supply pipe. 

55. Tender trucks. Tender truck center plates shall be 
securely fastened, maintained in a safe and suitable condition for 
service, and provided with a center pin properly secured. When 
shims are used between truck center plates, the male center plate 
must extend into the female center plate not less than three- 
fourths inch. 

Truck bolsters shall be maintained approximately level. 

When tender trucks are equipped with safety chains, they shall 
be maintained in a safe and suitable condition for service. 

Side bearings shall be maintained in a safe and suitable con¬ 
dition for service. 

Friction side bearings shall not be run in contact. 

The maximum clearance of side bearings on rear truck shall 
be three-eighths inch, and if used on front truck three-fourths 
inch, when the spread of side bearings is 50 inches. When the 
spread of the side bearings is increased, the maximum clearance 
may be increased in proportion. 



ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


421 


THROTTLE AND REVERSING GEAR 

1 * 

56. Throttles. Throttles shall be maintained in safe and 
suitable condition for service, and efficient means provided to 
hold the throttle lever in any desired position. 

57. Reversing gear. Reversing gear, reverse levers, and quad¬ 
rants shall be maintained in a safe and suitable condition for 
service. Reverse lever latch shall be so arranged that it can be 
easily disengaged, and provided with a spring which will keep it 
firmly seated in quadrant. Proper counterbalance shall be pro¬ 
vided for the valve gear. 

58. Upon application to the Chief Inspector, modification of 
these rules, not inconsistent with their purpose, may be made 
for roads operating less than five locomotives, if an investigation 
shows that conditions warrant it. 


FILING REPORTS 

59. Report of inspection. Not less than once each month and 
within 10 days after inspection a report of inspection, Form No. 1, 
size 6 by 9 inches, shall be filed with the United States Inspector 
in charge for each locomotive used by a railroad company; and 
a copy shall be filed in the office of the chief mechanical officer 
having charge of the locomotive. 

60. A copy of the monthly inspection report, Form No. 1, or 
annual inspection report, Form No. 3, properly filled out, shall be 
placed under glass in a conspicuous place in the cab before the 
locomotive inspected is put into service. 

61. Not less than once each year, and within 10 days after 
required tests have been completed, a report of such tests, show¬ 
ing general condition of the locomotive, shall be submitted on 
form No. 3, size 6 by 9 inches, and filed with the United States 
Inspector in Charge, and a copy shall be filed in the office of the 
chief mechanical officer having charge of the locomotive. The 
monthly report will not be required for the month in which this 
report is filed. 

Form No. 3 should be printed on yellow paper. 

Note. —Samples of Forms Nos. 1 and 3, indicating exact size, 
color, weight, and grade of paper, will be furnished on application. 



422 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


ACCIDENT REPORTS 

62. In the case of an accident resulting from failure, from any 
cause, of a locomotive or tender, or any appurtenances thereof, 
resulting in serious injury or death to one or more persons, the 
carrier owning or operating such locomotive shall immediately 
transmit by wire to the Chief Inspector, at his office in Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., a report of such accident, stating the nature of the 
accident, the place at which it occurred, as well as where the 
locomotive may be inspected, which wire shall be immediately 
confirmed by mail, giving a full detailed report of such accident, 
stating,' so far as may be known, the causes and giving a com¬ 
plete list of the killed or injured. 

Note. —Locomotive boilers and their appurtenances will be 
inspected in accordance with the order of the Commission, dated 
June 2, 1911. 

Safety appliances on locomotives will be inspected in accord¬ 
ance with the order of the Commission, dated March 13, 1911. 



MONTHLY LOCOMOTIVE INSPECTION AND REPAIR 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


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...... • • • * 

The above work has been performed and the report is approved. Notary Public. 




































424 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Form No. 2. 


f Number 
Locomotive l 

[ Initial . 

. Railroad . 


LOCOMOTIVE INSPECTION REPORT 

Instructions. —Each locomotive and tender must be inspected 
after each trip or day’s work and report made on this form, 
whether needing repairs or no.t. Proper explanation must be made 
hereon for failure to repair any defects reported, and the form 
approved by foreman, before the locomotive is returned to service. 

Inspected at., time .... m. Date ... 191.. 

Repairs needed: 


Condition of injectors. Water glass. 

Condition of gauge cocks. Brakes. 

Condition of piston rod and valve stem packing. 

Safety valve lifts at.pounds. Seats at.pounds. 

Main reservoir pressure, . pounds. Brake pipe pressure, 

.pounds. 

(Signature) .. 

(Occupation) ... 

The above work has been performed, except as noted, and the 
report is approved. 

. . 

Foreman. 

Note. —Additional items may be added to this form if desired. 


























ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


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426 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



Retaining ring fastening. Driving and trailing wheels. 



Shrinkage fastening with shoulder and retaining segments. Driving and trailing wheels. 



Shrinkage fastening. Driving and trailing wheels. 



























































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


427 


/ \ 

/ \ 

• \ 

/ \ 



Retaining ring fastening. Minimum thickness for steel tires. Engine and tender truck 

wheels. (See Rule 46.) 


\ 

\ 



Shrinkage fastening only. Minimum thickness for steel tires. Engine and tender truck 

wheels. (See Rule 46.) 






































428 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



Retaining ring fastening. Minimum thickness for steel tires. Engine and tender truck 

wneels. (See Buie 46.) 



Fio. 7.—STEEL WHEEL. 

Minimum thickness of rim. Engine and tender truck wheels. (See Rule 46.) 































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


429 



This gauge to be used In determining flat spots, worn flanges, and broken rims. 

(See Buies 45, 40, and 50.) 





























































430 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 



Fio. 10—METHOD OF GAUGING WORN FLANGES. 



w--W- 


A. 



Fio. 11.—METHOD OF GAUGING SHELLED AND FLAT SPOTS. 


































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


431 





Fio. 12.—METHOD OF MEASURING FLAT SPOTS OF ONE AND TWO INCHES. 



NOTE: 



Fio. 1L—ORIFICE. 









































Index 




Page 

Air Pump Running Hot, Reasons for_ 292 

Arithmetic, Handy Rules in___ 16 

Axles_ 159 

Baker Valve Gear_ 103 

Boilers_:_ 138 

British Thermal Unit_ 17 

B-3 Locomotive Brake_ 387 

B-3 Manipulation_ 383 

Classification of Locomotives_ 18 

Combustion_ 4 

Compound Locomotives_ 28 

Definition of Technical Terms_ 14 

Draft Appliances_ 145 

Electric Headlights_ 54 

Engine Failure, What Constitutes an_,_ 19 

Engine Failures and Breakdowns_ 134 

Handling of Freight Trains__ 290 

Injectors_ 148 

‘ ‘K” Triple Valves, _ 395 

Linstroms Improved Eccentric_ 180 

Locomotive and Adhesion, The_ 134 

Lubricators_ 155 

Mallet Locomotives_ 38 

Mallet Locomotives, Breakdowns_ 42 

Mallet Locomotives, Operating Rules_ 42 

Mechanical Problems_ 16 

Mikado Type Locomotives_ 24 

Nathan Bull’s-Eye Lubricator_ 64 

Nathan Simplex Injector_ 67 

No. 6 “ET” Locomotive Brake Equipment_ 320 

“PC” Passenger Brake Equipment_ 296 

“Piston Travel,” Definition of the Term_ 294 

Pounds in Locomotives_ 20 

Progressive Examination— 

First Year_ 190 

Second Year_ 203 

Third Year_ 224 

Pyle-National Electric Headlight_ 49 

Questions and Answers on— 

Air Brake, First Year__* 201 

Air Brake, Second Year_ 213 

Air Brake, Third Year_ 274 











































ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


433 


Questions and Answers—Continued. Page 

Air Brake, New York_ 282 

Air Pump_ 274 

Axles_ 159 

B-3 Equipment_ 385 

B-3 “HS” Locomotive Brake_ 385 

Baker Valve Gear_ 117 

Boilers_ 138 

Combustion_ • 7 

Compound Locomotives_ 28 

Compound Locomotive, Schenectady Tandem_ 33 

Compound Locomotives, Third Year’s Examination.__ 262 

Draft Appliances_1_ 145 

Duplex Air Pump__ 282 

Electric Headlights_ 271 

Electric Headlights, Pyle-National_ 54 

Electric Headlights in General_ 59 

Engine Failures and Breakdowns_ 134 

Engineers Brake and Equalizing Discharge Valve- 278 

Frames_ 159 

Guides_ 165 

Injectors_ 148 

“LT” Equipment_ 284 

Locomotive and Adhesion_ 134 

Lubricators_ 155 

Lubrication, Third Year’s Examination_ 269 

Mallet Locomotives_ 38 

Oil-Burning Locomotives_ 218 

“PC” Passenger Brake Equipment_ 305 

Control Valve_ 308 

Compartment Reservoir_ 308 

Pump Governor_ 276 

Rods_ 165 

Tires_ 159 

Triple Valve_ 281 

Trucks_ 159 

Valves and Valve Gear_ 170 

Walschaert Valve Gear_ 80 

Wheels_ 159 

No. 6 “ET” Equipment— 

Air Gauges_ 356 

Air Signal Supply System Test_ 379 

Air Signal System_ 357 

Automatic Brake Valve Test- 372 

B-6 Feed Valve_ 349 

Brake Cylinder Leakage Test- 377 

Broken Pipes_ 365 

C-6 Reducing Valve- 351 
















































434 


ENGINEMEN’S MANUAL 


Questions and Answers—Continued. 

No. 6 “ET” Equipment—Continued. Page 

Cut-out Cocks_ 356 

Dead Engine Fixtures_ 354 

Distributing Valve Test_ 374 

Feed Valve Test_ 370 

Freight Braking_ 363 

General Operation_ 358 

H-6 Automatic Brake Valve_ 337 

Independent Brake Valve Test_ 373 

Manipulation of Locomotive and Train Brakes. _ 360 

No. 6 Distributing Valve with Plain Cylinder Cap 342 

Parts of Equipment_ 335 

Pump Governor Test_ 369 

Quick Action Cylinder Cap_ 348 

Reducing Valve Test_ 371 

Roundhouse Inspector’s Test_ 367 

S-6 Independent Brake Valve_ 340 

SF-4 Pump Governor_ 351 

Safety Valve_ 347 

Safety Valve Test_ 378 

Testing and Operating_ 359 

Rules and Instructions for Inspection and Testing of Steam 

Locomotives and Tenders_ 408 

‘ ‘Running Travel,” Definition of the Term_ 294 

‘ ‘Standing Travel,” Definition of the Term_ 294 

Sellers Injector_ 69 

Slide Valves, The Allen-Richardson_ 71 

Southern Locomotive Valve Gear_ 122 

Steam_ 1 

Steam, The Theory of Superheating_ 2 

Superheaters, Schmidt_ 125 

Superheaters, Dont’s on_ 133 

Technical Terms, Definition of_ 14 

Triplex Articulated Compound Locomotive_ 45 

Valves and Valve Gear_ 170 

Walschaert Valve Gear_ 73 

General Instructions for_ 77 

Instructions for Erecting and Setting the_ 78 

Helmholtz Modification_ 79 















































































































% 












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